Virus Ebola — Wikipedia

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The virus Ebola is the infectious agent which causes, in humans and other primates, often hemorrhagic fevers – Ebola virus disease – at the origin of historical epidemics notable by their magnitude and severity. The transmission between humans takes place above all by direct contact with body fluids. It is a virus with a single -year -old RNA of negative polarity (order of Mononegavirales ) and with unwanted genome (group IN of the Baltimore classification). It presents the filamentous appearance characteristic of filoviruses, a family to which the Marburg virus, the Lloviu virus (genus Cuevavirus) also belong [ 3 ] it le vius měngà (genre dianlovus) [ 4 ] .

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Formerly called Ebola Zaïre virus, the Ebola virus belongs to the genre Ebolavirus and represents the only virus in the species Zaire Ebolavirus .

Given its biological danger, this virus should only be manipulated within P4 or BSL-4 [ 5 ] , [ 6 ] , which are designed to prevent the risks of accident contamination or due to malicious acts (bioterrorism). The disease it generates, for which there is not so far approved treatment, has a lethality rate ranging from 25% to 90% in humans [ 7 ] ; The epidemic which raged in West Africa in 2014 and 2015 thus displayed a lethality of 39.5% in the 27 mars 2016 , with 11,323 dead out of 28,646 cas identified [ 8 ] .

After an effective test in 2015 during an epidemic in Guinea, a first vaccine was announced at the end of 2016 and used for a vaccination campaign in West Africa in 2017 [ 9 ] , [ ten ] , [ 11 ] , as well as in the Democratic Republic of Congo in 2019 [ twelfth ] , [ 13 ] .

Between February 24 and June 19, 2021, an epidemic took place in Guinea, close to the epicenter of the previous epidemic. The sequencing of the strain causing the epidemic made it possible to highlight an epidemic revival of human origin by a healed person [ 14 ] .

Taxonomy [ modifier | Modifier and code ]

The Ebola virus belongs to the genre Ebolavirus family of Filoviridae (Filovirus), to which the Marburg virus also belongs. All are characteristic filamentous appearance viruses.

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There are six [ 16 ] viral species inside the genus Ebolavirus:

  • Ebolavirus Bundibugyo;
  • Tai forest ebolavirus;
  • Ebolavirus rest;
  • Sudan Ebolavirus;
  • Zaire Ebolavirus;
  • Ebolirus bomb [ 17 ] .

Most of them are the source of related hemorrhagic fevers in humans, but of variable intensity: while the lethality of the Ebola virus (Zaire Ebolavirus) can reach 90%, that of the Sudan virus (Ebolavirus Soudan ) is less, and that of the Reston virus (Ebolavirus Reston) almost zero. As for the Bombali virus, its pathogenicity is still unknown [ 17 ] .

The genome of the Ebola virus, about 19 long kilobases , has seven genes which code seven structural proteins and two additional secreted proteins by a phenomenon of polymerase stuttering : nucleoprotein of the capsid E.G , the cofactor of viral polymerase VP35 , the major matrix protein VP40 , GP, SGP and SSGP glycoproteins from the gene GP , minor nucleoprotein VP30 , the matrix protein VP24 and the Arn-dependent polymerase RNA L [ 18 ] .

Viroir and genome [ modifier | Modifier and code ]

The Ebola virus can be linear or branched, 0.8 to 1 long µm But being able to 14 μm [ 19 ] by concatemerization (formation of a long particle by concatenation of shorter particles), with a constant diameter of 80 nm . It has a helicoidal nuclear capsid of 20 To 30 nm of diameter. This consists of NP and VP30 nucleoproteins; herself is wrapped in a helicoid matrix of 40 To 50 nm diameter made up of VP24 and VP40 proteins and including transversal streaks of 5 nm [ 20 ] . The whole is, in turn, wrapped in a lipid membrane in which GP glycoproteins are stuck. [Ref. necessary]

(in) Organization of the Ebola virus genome.

He has a genome of 19 kilobases [ 21 ] having a characteristic organization of filovirus [ 22 ] . This genome code new functional proteins on seven genes expressed as follows [ 23 ] :

Replication [ modifier | Modifier and code ]

Colorized image showing nucleocapsides (small orange circles) and Ebola viral particles (large orange filamentous structures) inside infected green monkey kidney cells made by electron microscopy in transmission in transmission in [ 27 ] .

The fusion of the virion envelope with the plasma membrane of the host cell has the effect of releaseing nuclear capsid into the cytoplasm of the target cell. The RNA Polymérase RNA-dependent partially strips the genomic RNA and transcribed it into a messenger RNA with a positive polarity which are then translated into protein. The Polymérase L RNA of the Ebola virus links to a single promoter located at the 5 ‘end of the viral genome. The expression of the genes then takes place sequentially, with an increasing probability of interrupting as the polymerase progresses along the brin of genomic RNA to be transcribed: the first gene from the promoter is thus expressed more than the last gene at the end 3 ‘. The order of genes on the viral genome thus offers a simple, but effective means of regulating their transcription: nucleoprotein NP, coded by the first gene, is produced in greater quantity than polymerase L, coded by the last gene. The concentration of this nucleoprotein in the hoste cytosol determines the moment when the polymerase l switches to transcription – production of messenger RNA from the genomic RNA – towards viral replication – production of antigenomas of RNA to RNA to RNA to RNA Positive polarity by full replication of an original genomic RNA. These antigenomas are in turn transcribed into viral genomes of negative polarity RNA which interact with the structural proteins previously translated from viral RNA. Viral particles self-assemble from newly produced proteins and genetic material near the cell membrane. They swarm out of the cell, covering a viral envelope from the plasma membrane, where GP glycoproteins are inserted, which releases new virions ready to infect other cells [ 29 ] .

Expression of glycoprotein [ modifier | Modifier and code ]

Here, the particles of the EBOLA virus (in green) are found both in extracellular particles and as an overflowed particles from a renal cell (in blue) of African green monkey infected in a chronically (magnification: 20,000 x)

GP glycoprotein plays a decisive role in the virulence of the Ebola virus. It is normally expressed in soluble form sGP of 364 residue amino acids forming a homodimer of 110 kDa Composed of two identical parallel polypeptidic chains maintained together by two disulfide bridges at cysteines 53 and 306 [ 30 ] . The gene transcription product GP is actually a little longer than the functional SGP, which results from the cleavage with a virine of the pre-SGP produced, by releasing a small non-structural protein strongly O -Glycosylated called Δ-peptide (or peptide Δ). [Ref. necessary]

However, the gene GP genre viruses Ebolavirus Contains seven consecutive adenine residues probably forming a hairpin structure, or tall-tag, at the level of which the Patine or “Bégaie” viral polymerase (we speak of polymerase stuttering ): In about one in five cases, it inserts an additional adenine in the messenger RNA, which shifts from a nucleotide the frame of codons by the ribosome. The protein produced by this modified mRNA, the GP proper, is therefore different from the SGP: its 295 residues N -terminals are identical, but the following 312 residues, side C -terminal , are different. There follows a longer protein, totaling 676 residues (one more for the Reston virus), cleared by a virine at a basic region to form two subunits, GP first and GP 2 , maintained together by a disulfide bridge between CYS53 on GP first and CYS609 on GP 2 . It is this heterodimer that assembles in a triple of 450 kDa On the surface of the lipid membrane of the virions and allows their penetration into the cells of the host to infect.

Polymérase L skating on the hairpin also produces a third glycoprotein, called ssGP , whose role is not known and which is believed to be monomeric; This occurs by insertion of two Additional adenine residues at the level of the gene’s ordeal GP of the virus, which this time shifts from two Nucleotides The framework for reading the mRNA by ribosome and leads to a protein of 298 residues of amino acids. The expression of several glycoproteins by overlap of genes is a characteristic allowing to distinguish, among filovirus, genres viruses Ebolavirus And Cuevavirus genre viruses Marburgvirus , the latter producing only GP glycoprotein 1.2 [ thirty first ] .

Etiology [ modifier | Modifier and code ]

The incubation period varies from 2 to 21 days, most often from 4 to 9 days [ 32 ] . A week after the start of the symptoms, the virions invade the blood and cells of the infected person (which integrate the virus by macropinocytose [ 33 ] ). The most concerned cells are monocytes, macrophages and dendritic cells. The progression of the disease generally reaches the functioning of vital organs, in particular kidneys and liver. This causes significant internal hemorrhages. Death occurs, shortly after, by polyvisceral failure and cardio-respiratory shock. [Ref. necessary]

The Ebola virus saturates all organs and tissues with the exception of bones and motor muscles. First, small, diffuse blood clots in all the vessels by disseminated intravascular coagulation is formed, the mechanism of which is not clear [ 34 ] . The clots then stick to the walls of the blood vessels to form a “paving”. The more the infection progresses, the more the clots, which blocks the capillaries. Finally, they become so numerous that they block blood arrival in the various organs of the body. Some parts of the brain, liver, kidneys, lungs, testicles, skin and intestines then necrose because they suffer from a lack of oxygenated blood. [Ref. necessary]

One of the peculiarities of the Ebola virus is the brutality with which it attacks the connective tissues. It also causes red spots called petechies resulting from subcutaneous hemorrhages. It affects the collagen of the structure of the skin. The skin under layers die and liquefy which causes white and red bubbles known as maculopapular. At this stage, the simple fact of touching the skin tears it as it is amollie. [Ref. necessary] The virus causes a significant inflammatory reaction, but certain antiviral proteins seem to inhibit it, such as interferon [ 35 ] .

Semiology [ modifier | Modifier and code ]

Ebola virus disease is characterized by sudden mounted fever accompanied by physical fatigue, muscle pain, headache and sore sore. Then start an often bloody diarrhea (called “red diarrhea” in French -speaking Africa [ 36 ] ), vomiting, rashes and renal and hepatic insufficiency. Internal and external hemorrhages then occur, followed by death by cardio-respiratory shock in 50 to 90% of cases. The hemorrhagic signs can be very crude with the type of conjunctival hemorrhages. They can also be profuses such as hematemesis and melæna. The contagiousness of the patients is therefore very variable although 5 to 10 viral particles of Ebola is enough to trigger an extreme amplification of the virus in a new host. [Ref. necessary]

Death occurs in a shock table with multi-viscous failure after 6 to 16 days [ 37 ] After the first symptoms. Non -mortal cases can cause neurological, liver or eye sequelae. The species Ebolavirus Zaire seems more dangerous than the Sudan Ebolavirus species, with a mortality rate reaching 60 to 90% [ 37 ] .

The natural cycle of the virus in nature, as well as its origin is still poorly understood. We know that it affects certain great apes (chimpanzees, gorillas) [ 38 ] , antelopes and bats. [Ref. necessary]

Ebola seems to date even more deadly for the gorilla than for humans; He is the second threat to the gorillas (after poaching according to primatologist Emma Stokes): Ebola would have killed about half of the Gorillas of the Republic of Congo from 2005 to 2012. [Ref. necessary]

The hypothesis that has been taking shape since 2005 (but also to be confirmed) is as follows: [Ref. necessary]

  • bats are healthy carriers;
  • bats contaminate the monkeys;
  • Humans hunt in the forest, and contaminate, for example by “eating contaminated bush meat” [ 39 ] , or by meeting the monkeys, or even by eating chiroptères and in particular the giant frugivore bat Hypsignathus monstrosus (one of the 3 species found carrying antibodies [ 40 ] , [ 41 ] , two other species have also been found with traces of infection EPOMOPS FRANCHETI And Myonycteris torquata [ 42 ] , then others ( Epomophorus gambianus , Nanonycteris veldkampi And Epomops Buettikofer [ 43 ] ). Africa is not alone concerned since at the beginning of the 2010 Furgivore bats were also found with antibodies in the Philippines [ 44 ] and in Bangladesh (5 on 276 individuals tested, or 3.5% [ 45 ] ).

Transmission modes [ modifier | Modifier and code ]

For Munster, specialist in Ebola and other dangerous pathogens, understand the epidemiology of this virus (and in particular how a zoonotic virus passes from one species to another) implies an eco -depidemiological approach, because “Forest, hunting and human implantation on virgin environments all play a role, putting people in contact with the microbes hidden there. Once a new infectious agent affects man, the forces of globalization, urbanization and mobility can spread it faster than ever ” [ forty six ] .

Between humans [ modifier | Modifier and code ]

Direct contact with organic liquids (blood, vomit, diarrhea, sweat, suppurations, saliva, sperm …) of an infected person is the main way of interhuman contamination [ 47 ] .

According to the WHO conclusions on the date of , the most infectious liquids are currently blood, stool and vomit. Conversely, the virus does not propagate by cough and sneezing with a risk “Rare or even non -existent” According to current WHO observations: given the epidemiological data and among other things the last outbreak, the propagation patterns do not correspond to the characteristics of the diseases transmitted by air (measles virus or chickenpox, or bacillus Tuberculosis for example) [ 48 ] .

The risk of propagation among hospital staff is very high, especially if the sterilization of the equipment is not ensured. In endemic areas, non-compliance with hygiene and safety rules caused the death of several doctors and nurses during epidemics, and it promotes nosocomial contaminations. [Ref. necessary] Close contacts, that is to say direct contact with organic liquids of an infected, alive or deceased person, are a source of contagion; The funeral rituals of certain peoples of Central Africa consisting in washing the body, then rinsing their hands in a common basin, also often favored the spread of the virus in the family and among the friends of the deceased. [Ref. necessary]

Between humans and animals [ modifier | Modifier and code ]

One hypothesis is that where the frugivore bats are particularly abundant, they could be a source of infection for other species, however from 2006 to 2017 never “No one has isolated the virus living in bats, and no one knows how Ebola could go from a bat to other mammals, including humans, or why this fatal jump is so unpredictable in time and geography ” [ forty six ] . An intermediate host, still unidentified, could be involved [ forty six ] .

Human transmission seems to be linked to the manipulation of primates (dead or living) infected with the virus: case of monkeys, probably of the genre Cercopithecus , sold as bush meat on the markets in the Democratic Republic of Congo.
In the laboratory, non -human primates were infected following exposure to aerosolized particles of the pork virus, but a transmission by air has not been demonstrated between primates. Pigs have excreted the virus in their rhinopharyngeal secretions and their stools after experimental inoculation [ 49 ] .

Tanks [ modifier | Modifier and code ]

The natural reservoir of the Ebola virus could be bats, especially the species of the Egyptian Roussette [ 50 ] . Zaire Ebolavirus antibodies have been detected in the serum of three species of tropical frugivore bats: Hypsignathus monstrosus [ 51 ] , EPOMOPS FRANCHETI [ 52 ] And Myonycteris torquata [ 53 ] . However, the virus has never been detected in these animals [ 37 ] . If the frugivore bats of the family of pteropodids are probably the natural reservoir of the Ebola virus [ 54 ] , [ 55 ] , we have found genetic elements of filovirus in the genome of certain small rodents, insectivore bats, musangles, tenrecidae or even marsupial [ 56 ] , which would tend to prove an interaction of several tens of millions of years between these animals and the filoviruses.

Some bats (sometimes migratory [ 57 ] ) would thus be healthy carriers and would significantly contribute to the natural reservoir of the Ebola virus. Until now, they first contaminated another animal before the virus reaches human populations, but they could also contaminate humans directly: according to the IRD, in certain circumstances, bats could Indeed transmit the Ebola virus directly to humans [ 58 ] .

Domestic pigs are sensitive to Ebola viruses by infection of mucous membranes [ 59 ] . They then develop a serious respiratory disease which can be confused with other pig respiratory diseases, associated with a effusion of high viral load in the environment, exposing healthy pigs to infection [ 59 ] .

Mutation [ modifier | Modifier and code ]

For the WHO, the idea that the Ebola virus would mutate and suddenly spread from one person to the other by air is a “Pure speculation that is not based on any convincing data” [ 48 ] . Indeed, scientists do not know any viruses whose mode of transmission has changed radically so far. WHO indicates as an example that the H5N1 virus of avian flu (which has caused pathologies in humans since 1997 and has become endemic among chicken and duck populations in large regions of Asia) circulated in billions birds in more than two decades without its mode of transmission changing significantly. [Ref. necessary] (Only the Reston Ebola virus is spreading in the air, with a mortality measured zero, on a very small number of young and healthy humans, accidentally contaminated.)

The disease caused by the virus is fatal in 20% to 90% of cases [ 60 ] .
This large difference is due to the fact that the Ebola virus is particularly dangerous in Africa, where care is limited and difficult to provide to the populations. If the virus has no specific treatment, many symptomatic treatments (resuscitation, rehydration, transfusion, etc.) can avoid the death of the patient [ sixty one ] .

The first use of convalescent blood or serum as a treatment track, to take advantage of the antibodies of these and arouse passive immunization among the transfused patients, was thus successfully tempted during the first Ebola epidemic of 1976 in Yambuku. A plasmaphere program has even been implemented on this occasion and is one of the recommendations of the international commission deployed at the time by the Zaïrois government [ 62 ] .

An experimental alive vaccine gives encouraging results in monkey [ 63 ] . He was administered as To a researcher working on the virus, after possible accidental contamination. Evolution has been favorable [ sixty four ] .
Since 2019, vaccination campaigns have been carried out in affected areas with this EBOLA virus vaccine.

Other avenues are being explorated in animals: use of a protein inhibitor of a coagulation factor [ 65 ] or inhibition of viral polymerase RNA by interferent RNAs [ 66 ] . A serum, made up of monoclonal antibodies produced by PGM tobacco plants called ZMAPP from the American firm MAPHAPHARMACEUTICAL, is successfully administered, in an experimental way, in , out of two infected American patients. The United States has partially raised restrictions on another experimental treatment of the Canadian company Tekmira, but its placing on the market could take several months.
The Japanese also have an experimental treatment which would work on the Ebola virus even 6 days after infection and this on the mice, the tests on the primates have not yet been done and the Nigeria should soon receive a small stock of this product used To treat the flu and which works on Nile fever, yellow fever and aphteuse fever. [Ref. necessary] Lamivudine, an anti-HIV molecule available in Africa, is being tested to treat Ebola [ sixty seven ] .

In 2014, in the Democratic Republic of Congo, researchers removed antibodies from a survivor infected with the Ebola virus. Tested on the mouse, several of these antibodies have proven to be effective, 60 to 100% of the mice on which the injection of these antibodies had been practiced survived infection [ 68 ] .

Precautions [ modifier | Modifier and code ]

  • The slaughter of infected animals using gloves and a mask, with rigorous monitoring of burial or incineration of carcasses, may be necessary to reduce the risk of animal transmission to humans. Restriction or ban on the displacement of animals from infected farms to other areas can reduce the spread of the disease [ 69 ] , [ 70 ] .
  • Products (blood and meat) should be cooked carefully before being consumed.
  • The communities affected by the Ebola virus must inform the population of the nature of the disease and the measures taken to stem the outbreak, including during funeral rites. People who died of this infection should be buried quickly and without taking any risks.
  • The imposition of quarantine, the prohibition to go to hospitals, the suspension of the practice of care for patients and funerals as well as the sidelining of patients in separate huts which are disinfected (from the Javel water two weeks apart is enough), sometimes burned after the death of their occupants, make it possible to stem epidemics. On the ground, there is still no more security measure if not wearing the air filter.
  • Laboratory research must be carried out within level of level 4 levels of level 4. Laboratories at level 4 are fully autonomous and have a specialized ventilation system, an entry and exit SAS, biological protective speakers class III, etc. The procedures on sterilization and decontamination are rigorously applied to it and the employees put on a pressurized combination.

In Europe, the first laboratory to receive authorization to work on Ebola in 2000, is the P4 Jean Mérieux laboratory, in Lyon (France) [ 71 ] . In Belgium, the Higher Health Council issued an opinion [ 72 ] In which it defines, for Belgian hospitals, the management of patients in whom an infection by the Ebola virus or by the Marburg virus is envisaged, suspected or confirmed.

In the United States, NIH Finance, from 2012 for a period of 5 years, the Albert Einstein College of Medicine Institute in order to study the molecular mechanisms of virus infection and its diffusion in animals [ seventy three ] .

Sociology [ modifier | Modifier and code ]

Faced with the magnitude of the 2014 epidemic, the WHO accepted the August 12 Use subject to experimental treatments to treat patients with EBOLA virus disease. [Ref. necessary] This was able to be locally presented as a white-checking white to all kinds of traditional or simply fallacious medications and which can prove to be dangerous. In Nigeria, a rumor ran during the summer of 2014 making the massive consumption of turmeric, salt and brine a way to protect yourself from Ebola virus disease [ 74 ] , causing the death of several people poisoned by excessive salt consumption [ 75 ] and leading the FDA on August 14 [ 76 ] Then the WHO August 15th [ 77 ] To issue warnings against fraudulent treatments and ancestral or religious beliefs concerning the virus, still very present even during the 2018 epidemic [ 78 ] .

Following the WHO approval of the use of experimental treatments within the framework of the 2014 epidemic [ 79 ] , the Minister of Health of Nigeria, Onyebuchi Chukwu, announced the August 15th arrival in the country of a baptized treatment Nano Silver on which little information had filtered, apart from the fact that it would have been developed by a Nigerian scientist whose identity remained confidential [ 80 ] . According to D r Simon Agwale, Nigerian expert in contagious diseases, this treatment would have been effective against viruses, bacteria and parasites [ 80 ] . Following the FDA warning against the use of this kind of product [ 81 ] , the federal authorities [ 82 ] and the state of Lagos [ 83 ] declared it non -compliant for medical use, the Nano Silver being promptly removed from the Nigerian market [ 84 ] .

In the rest of West Africa as well, unfounded rumors have circulated, for example in Togo, according to which washing with lemon in salt water would protect from the virus [ 85 ] , while in Burkina Faso crooks were trying to take advantage of the credulity of Internet users to extract money from the promise of miracle treatment “under the high sponsorship of the Minister of Canadian Health Rona Ambrose” [ eighty six ] .

Discovery [ modifier | Modifier and code ]

The Ebola virus was named in reference to a river passing near the city of Yambuku, in northern Zaire (today Democratic Republic of Congo). It is at the hospital in this locality that the first case of Ebola hemorrhagic fever is identified, in , by the chief doctor of the Bumba health zone, the Congolese doctor Ngoy Mushola, who will make it the first complete clinical description, announcing a first epidemic which was then going to touch 318 people and kill 280 [ 88 ] .

The Belgian doctor Peter Piot of the Institute of Tropical Medicine of Antwerp, long presented, wrongly, as the discoverer of the Ebola virus [ 89 ] , [ 90 ] , was part of the first laboratory team that worked on what will later be identified as a new virus. According to his own words, he should have been more responsive when someone declared him as “The discoverer of the virus” [ 91 ] .

The blood samples which allowed the identification of the virus, a time allocated to the Congolese researcher Jean-Jacques Muyembe [ 92 ] , in fact was by the team made up of D r Firmin Krubwa, from the University of Kinshasa, as well as D r Gilbert Raffier and Jean-Francois Ruppol for the blood of convalescents, and by the D r Jacques Courteille, from the Ngaliema clinic to Kinshasa, for the blood of a died nurse of the disease, as attested in 2016 in the prestigious Journal of Infectious Disease , by the main actors still alive of this first epidemic [ 88 ] .

2013-2015 epidemic [ modifier | Modifier and code ]

This epidemic, started in , is sometimes described as “atypical”, because it is not controlled [ ninety four ] . In , it evolves in a worrying way in Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone. THE , 844 deaths were officially confirmed as due to the virus [ 95 ] .
A flambé is declared in the Boende district (isolated region of the province of Ecuador, in the Democratic Republic of Congo) then died [ 96 ] .
Another outbreak (with first cases noted in , unrelated to the other epidemic) extends to West Africa by becoming, according to WHO, in a few months “The most important and the most complex since the discovery of the virus in 1976. It produces more cases and deaths than all the previous outbreaks united. This outbreak also has the particularity of spreading from one country to another, starting from Guinea to touch Sierra Leone and Liberia (crossing land borders), Nigeria (through a single traveler air) [ 96 ] . »

The sequencing of the virus genes (2014WA) of this epidemic in West Africa has shown 98% identity with the Zaire Ebola virus. The lethality rate would be 55% in affected countries [ 97 ] . According to available data, the transmission during incubation is very unlikely except by direct contact with blood, secretions, and/or other body fluids from infected or living infected people [ 97 ] . WHO recalls that the incubation time can reach 21 days and that sperm and breast milk can be vectors of the virus. Indeed the virus can remain present in the body several months after clinical healing [ 96 ] , [ 98 ] . Nevertheless there is no listed case of transmission of the Ebola virus by sexual means [ 98 ] .

Pandemic risk management is done worldwide under the aegis of the WHO [ 99 ] .
Beginning , a study based on an updated modeling almost in real time [ 100 ] the pandemic risk linked to air traffic, of which first results were published in PLOS [ 101 ] , draws attention to the risks of introducing the virus in Europe and France. If air traffic had remained normal, there would be 75% risks that France be affected within twenty days, but according to Alessandro Vespignani, from Northeastern University in Boston, thanks to the 80% reduction in air transport from affected countries, this risk falls to 20% [ 102 ] . Simon Cauchemez, from the Pasteur Institute, recalls that an imported case is not enough to define the triggering of an epidemic (it can be detected, isolated, and possibly healed without contagion) [ 102 ] .

According to the WHO, for each new case, it is necessary “Implement a set of interventions: care of cases, surveillance [for 21 days] and search for contacts, quality laboratory services, risk -free burials and social mobilization. The participation of the community is essential to curb the outbreaks. Awareness of risk factors for Ebola virus infection and possible protective measures is an effective means of reducing human transmission [ 96 ] . »

More than 2,000 people died between And in the Democratic Republic of Congo due to the disease [ 103 ] , [ 104 ] . The NGO Doctors Without Borders accuses The World Health Organization to ration the virus vaccine and estimates that this is a “major problem” [ 105 ] .

During the Cold War, the USSR launched a research program aimed at transforming Ebola into an organic weapon [ 106 ] . According to researchers and American authorities, the Russians then tried to manipulate the genetic coding of the virus [ 106 ] . The biological weapon research program in Russia officially ended in 1991; However, research would have continued in the laboratories of the Ministry of Defense [ 106 ] . Two fatal cases made it possible to know research on Ebola in Russia [ 106 ] .

In 1992, the Japanese sect Aum Shinrikyō, taking advantage of an epidemic, tried in vain to obtain the Ebola virus in Zaire, during a “humanitarian” mission carried out by the guru in person with forty other members of the sect [ 107 ] . Considered particularly dangerous, this virus is subject in most countries to specific security provisions. In France, any research authorization on it is issued by the National Agency for the Safety of Medicines and Health Products (ANSM), after examination of the criminal record; the file Sambiosec of the ANSM-PS, to which order agencies can access, lists the various research and current uses. [Ref. necessary]

The 2014 epidemic has been the subject of several interpretations on the theme of conspiracy theory [ 108 ] .

Given its very great virulence, its raised lethality and its spectacular symptoms, the Ebola virus has become one of the worst incarnations of modern fear of biological danger, that is to say a pandemic virus which would cause itself, And via Human means of transport, a disaster on a planetary scale. This has earned Ebola, like coal or smallpox, to be the main subject or the inspiration of several films and novels-catastrophes exploiting the subject, in particular Virus ( Outbreak ) of the American writer Robin Cook.

Mentions of the Ebola virus in popular culture

Literature [ modifier | Modifier and code ]

He is the replacement for coal in Tom Clancy’s novel, On order , which was acclaimed for having described in advance the events of September 11, 2001.

In the novel Rainbow Six, the Shiva virus comes by genetic engineering of the Ebola virus

The book The Hot Zone , from Richard Preston, tells the history of the discovery of Ebola.

The book Virus De Robin Cook is a novel dealing with contamination by the Ebola virus.

hokazono masaya, in the mango Emerging , edited at Kurokawa, tells the appearance of a viral pandemic due to an emerging virus whose symptoms strongly recall those of Ebola (in the manga, it is said that the virus is close to the Marburg virus and not Ebola ).

Television [ modifier | Modifier and code ]

Episode 1.03 of Seven days to act Watch a strain of the Ebola virus transferable by the air which kills 98% of the world’s population in a week.

In an episode of the series Walker, Texas Ranger , a suspect of African origin carries this virus, which causes very great concern at Walker and his team, some rangers having been in contact with this suspect.

In season 3 of the television series 24 hours chrono , the symptoms caused by the Cordilla virus, which the inhabitants of Los Angeles are reached, are inspired by Ebola.

During season 9 of the NCIS television series: special surveys, a terrorist steals the Ebola virus to a laboratory with the intention of releaseing it in a stadium containing 6,000 people including several army high-grades.

In season 1 episode 7 of The Sentinel, the Ebola virus is stolen in a university laboratory.

In episode 6 of season 1 of The Walking Dead, the Ebola virus is mentioned as one of the main reasons with the smallpox of why nobody should leave the CDC, as Jenner explains to the group of survivors.

In the last episode of the Z Nation series we learn that the zombie virus is partly from the Ebola virus.

In the mini series The Hot Zone inspired by the eponymous international best-seller of journalist Richard Preston published in 1995, The Hot Zone Book The terrifying story of the arrival of Ebola on American soil.

Series Fear on the lake created by TF1 and broadcast from the , mentions a genetically modified virus very close to the Ebola virus, but displaying a lethality of 96% (against 30 to 90% for the natural Ebola virus).

Movie theater [ modifier | Modifier and code ]

This is the subject of the Hong Kong film Ebola syndrome .

The film’s fictional virus of the film Alert ! S’en Inspire.

The director of 28 days later Also said that he was inspired by the effects of Ebola on human victims for the sake of realism.

In the Japanese film L change the world , tire du manga Death note , the Ebola virus is represented as a biological weapon; Since it comes from two strains, it has become a mutant virus.

The film Contagion Also inspires the bat as a reservoir of a disease decimating the population.

Video game [ modifier | Modifier and code ]

In the game Resident Evil 5 , the Ebola virus is the Progenitor virus virus (“precursor” in French).

  1. ↑ (in) Image published on Flickr by CDC (August 2014).
  2. ↑ (in) ‘ Virus taxonomy : 2018b Release » , ICTV, (consulted the ) .
  3. ↑ (in) Antonio Tenorio Those, W. I I I Cap Juan E. Echevarría et Stephen K. Hutchison , ‘ Discovery of an Ebolavirus-Like Filovirus in Europe » , PLOS Pathogens , vol. 7, n O 10, , e1002304 (ISSN  1553-7374 , PMID  22039362 , PMCID  PMC3197594 , DOI  10.1371/Journal.ppat.1002304 , read online , consulted the )
  4. ↑ (in) Zheng-li He , Lin-FA Wang , Yun-zhi Zhang ET Ren-Di Jiang , ‘ Characterization of a filovirus (Měnglà virus) from Rousettus bats in China » , Nature Microbiology , vol. 4, n O 3, , p. 390–395 (ISSN  2058-5276 , DOI  10.1038/S41564-018-0328-Y , read online , consulted the )
  5. ↑ (in) ‘ Biosafety in microbiological and biomedical laboratories, 5th edition » ( Archive.org • Wikiwix • Archive.is • Google • What to do ?) , CDC, (consulted the ) .
  6. ↑ (in) Section VIII—Agent Summary Statements , CDC, 2009.
  7. ↑ OMS, Ebola virus disease , September 2014
  8. ↑ (in) WHO: Ebola Situation Report published on 30 mars 2016 On the monitoring site of the World Health Organization epidemic.
  9. ↑ ‘ Efficacy and effectiveness of an rVSV-vectored vaccine in preventing Ebola virus disease : final results from the Guinea ring vaccination, open-label, cluster-randomised trial (Ebola Ça Suffit!) » (in)
  10. ↑ ‘ “Open-label phase I clinical trial of Ad5-EBOV in Africans in China” » (in)
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(Among the notorious doctors who fought against the virus, can be cited, in addition to Peter Piot: Sheik Umar Khan in Sierra Leone, Ameyo Adadevoh in Nigeria. These two doctors died in their fight against the epidemic.)

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