Dollar America — Wikipedia

The American dollar or United States Dollar or dollar US (monetary symbol: $  ; code ISO : USD For United States dollar ) is the national currency of the United States and its overseas territories (like Puerto Rico); It is also that of Ecuador, Zimbabwe, Federated States of Micronesia, Marshall Islands, Palaos, Panama, Salvador, East Timor, Turkish and Caica Islands, British Virgin Islands and Islands. It is divided into 100 cents.

Its ISO 4217 code is “USD”, with the name “Dollar in the United States”. Its symbol is “US $” or simply “$” (Unicode U+0024 character). However, this last symbol is used locally to designate other national currencies (for example Peso in Mexico).

The United States dollar is the most used currency in the world for transactions ^{[ 8 ]} and the first in quantity of money in circulation ^{[ 9 ]} .

In scriptural currency, the dollar is:

• The main reserve currency used worldwide, representing 58% of central banks reserves around the world in 2022 ( source : FMI ) ^{[ ten ]} ;
• the most used currency in international trade;
• The main currency treated on the exchange market, presents in 2022 in 88% of transactions (an unchanged figure compared to 2016 and 2019), against 31% for the euro ( source : BRI ) ^{[ 11 ] , [ twelfth ]} ;
• The motto with the most important financial markets, even if this preponderance is being called into question by the euro in several areas.

Finally, certainly for much less important amounts, it is a fiduciary currency of very widespread use in the world, and more than half of its outstanding tickets is in fact held outside of its country of origin.

Responsibility [ modifier | Modifier and code ]

The external value of the dollar is the exclusive spring of the American federal government, and it is the secretary of the Treasury who is responsible for it. The American central bank, the United States Federal Reserve, in particular, has no mandate to communicate on the value of the currency.

Etymology and colloqualisms [ modifier | Modifier and code ]

The name “dollar” is a deformation of the name of a European money currency, the Thaler. This piece had experienced several variations from the Joachimsthaler created in Bohemia at XV ^{It is} century. The Thaler was used at XVI ^{It is} And XVII ^{It is} centuries in various German states ^{[ 13 ]} , to the Thaler of Marie-Thérèse struck with XVIII ^{It is} At XX ^{It is} century ^{[ 14 ]} . It is ultimately the piece of eight reals of the Spanish Empire, inspired by Joachimsthaler and called by the English spanish dollar , which will serve as a stallion to establish the US dollar.

The French will call these silver pieces, significantly of the same titration and weight, “Piastre”, a term which remained among French speakers in North America to designate the dollar.

Finally, in the United States as in other countries with a currency of the same name, familiar use often prefers to the term “dollar” that of buck , which designates a male cervid ( colloquialism ). This job, attested in 1856, may come from an abbreviation of buckskin , “Deer skins ball”, whose use as a value of value dates back at least to 1748 ^{[ 15 ]} : in a time when cash was rare, a ball of skins could serve as money in colonial trade between Amerindians and Europeans; If this practice gradually died from the introduction of the dollar in 1792, the name would have remained, going to the new means of exchange ^{[ 16 ]} . Another possible origin is a poker term ^{[ 15 ]} .

XVIII ^{It is} century [ modifier | Modifier and code ]

The first post to have been printed on American soil dates from 1690, by the British colony of Massachusetts. He was then expressed in Book Sterling. From 1709 to 1755, the thirteen colonies printed different types of tickets, still in pounds. After the start of the United States’s independence war, from 1776, were made under the aegis of the continental congress of tickets expressed in continental dollars, the Continental dollar ( Continental or Continental currency dollar ), printed excessively until 1782, and generating an almost bankruptcy then the creation of the Bank of North America.

The dollar is finally adopted by the Confederation Congress July 6, 1785 ^{[ 17 ]} And becomes the official currency of the United States under the Mint Act in 1792. The decimal system was then chosen: 1 dollar = 10 dimes = 100 cents = 1000 mills .

The facial value of the first parts of a dollar struck in 1794 is indexed to the money: $ 1 is equivalent to 26.96 g money as 892/1000 ^{It is} . This weight was modeled on the Spanish room of 8 Real ^{[ b ]} , also called eight -piece ( weight of eight ) weighing 27,067 4 g money for 896/1000 ^{It is} which was commonly used in international exchanges at XVIII ^{It is} century and which circulated on American soil under the name of Spanish dollar ( Spanish dollar ).

In 1800, by comparison, the 5 French piece played 25 g Under 900/1000, the British 1 -crown piece (5 shillings or 1/4 £) weighed 28,275 9 g under 925/1000.

XIX ^{It is} century [ modifier | Modifier and code ]

In 1861, the first green tickets appeared. The maxim ” In God We Trust ” (” We believe in God ” ^{[ 18 ]} Or “We have confidence in God”) appeared for the first time in 1864 on the 2 cents play. Approved in 1955 by an act of Congress, it has been systematically printed on all American tickets since 1957.

In 1866-1877, a dollar gold is worth 5 francs 17, while 100 cents money are worth 5 francs 31 francs ^{[ 19 ]} .

Start of XX ^{It is} century [ modifier | Modifier and code ]

The latest $ 1 silver parts, said peace dollar Having really circulated were struck in 1935 and weigh 26.73 grams under 900/1000 ^{It is} .
Sous-Multiples of 1/2 (half dollar) 25 cents (quarter) and 10 cents (Dimen) were struck until 1964 under 900/1000 ^{It is} .

1944-1971 : le Gold Exchange Standard [ modifier | Modifier and code ]

The global monetary system says of Gold Exchange Standard (Gold exchange stallion) was set up by Genoa agreements in 1922 until 1933 (Roosevelt decided to suspend the convertibility of the dollar into gold to devalue it) then by the Bretton Woods agreements in 1944 and give a place preponderant to the dollar. It is based on two main pillars:

• a fixed exchange system between currencies (with very low margins of fluctuations);
• Dollar recognition as an international reserve currency ( as good as gold ), which remains convertible into gold, but only in the context of exchanges between central banks.

If the system operated properly in the 1950s, the accumulation in the 1960s of American deficits in the 1960s still increased by the expenses relating to the Vietnam War led at the beginning of the 1970s very strong pressure on American currency. However, its global reserve currency function was very little embarrassed by the United States and did not encourage them to better control its deficits.

1971-1973: transition period [ modifier | Modifier and code ]

It’s the August 15, 1971 That President Richard Nixon decides the discomfort of the dollar compared to gold, following permanent tensions on this currency. This decision is made without consulting the partners (other Western and Japan countries). It is explained by the serious and growing danger that other countries require the conversion into gold of their dollars surpluses, since the dollar was convertible into gold, at least in the exchanges between central banks.

With this American “diktat”, the Bretton Woods system has entered agony, since the value of each of the currencies was determined by reference to a weight of gold. Pressures on the dollar could only get worse, which happened. Despite the degradation of its trade balance, the country knows no crisis in its balance of payments due to the status of the dollar as an international reserve currency. Valéry Giscard d’Estaing describes this as an exorbitant privilege of the dollar.

Several meetings took place to agree on a devaluation of the American currency and attempt a system to be put back. They led to the “Washington agreements”, also called “Smithsonian Institution agreements”, concluded the December 18, 1971 By the ministers of finance and central bankers of the “group of ten” (CEE, Sweden, the United States, Canada and Japan) which established central parities and fluctuation margins of 2.25% ^{[ 20 ]} .

It was from this time that the formula allocated to the American secretary to the Treasury, John Connally: ‘ The dollar is our currency and your problem » (“The dollar is our currency and your problem”).

The February 13, 1973 , the weakness of the American currency led to a readjustment of parities, the dollar being devalued by 10%, but this was immediately insufficient.

Since 1973: the floating exchange rate regime [ modifier | Modifier and code ]

Reconstruction of the Euro-Dollar exchange rate from January 1972 to January 1999 from the exchange rates of French franc A you German mark .

The 19 mars 1973 , the “group of ten” decided to abandon the fixity of exchange rates of the various currencies compared to the Dollar stallion, which allowed the central banks of other countries to stop buying dollar to maintain its parity, According to the rules of the system of the system in force. A new international monetary system known as “floating changes” has therefore emerged. It is still in force.

The Jamaica agreements formally endorse this situation January 8, 1976 .

From 1973 to 1979, the dollar continued on its momentum and became regularly and considerably depreciated compared to the Deutsche Mark, losing almost 50% of its value ( See graphic opposite left ).

The violent rise in interest rates decided at the end of 1979 by the new governor of the American central bank, Paul Volcker, to fight – successfully – inflation, opposite the trend. The remedy is severe: for an inflation of around 9% at an annual rate in 1980, short -term interest rates increased up to 19%. Real interest rates reach unprecedented heights and, at the cost of a severe recession, inflation disappears: in 1983, it is only 3.2% ( See graphic opposite right ).

These real interest rates cause an influx of capital in the United States, and the dollar appreciates for five years, until returning, in mars 1985 , at its level before 1973, which is clearly exaggerated.

September 1985: Plaza agreements [ modifier | Modifier and code ]

At the Plaza Hotel in New York, the September 22, 1985 , the so-called G5 countries (that is to say those of the G7 minus Canada and Italy) are publicly agreed to intervene on the foreign exchange market and organize a decline in the dollar. 10 billion US $ is spent, with an immediate and spectacular effect. In barely fifteen months, the dollar erased all its earnings compared to the Deutsche Mark and, at the end of 1986, it found itself at its lowest historical level, that of 1979.

February 1987: Louvre agreements [ modifier | Modifier and code ]

Eager to stop the infernal machine they have started, the G5 countries, joined by Canada, sign in Paris the February 22, 1987 The Louvre agreements, intended to stop the drop in the dollar. Only, this time, it does not work and, after a break in the course of 1987, the dollar will continue for ten years, tendencyly, to depreciate.

The economic consequences of interventions [ modifier | Modifier and code ]

In a very visible and fairly rapid way, the imbalances born from the cacophony of the Plaza and the Louvre agreements lead to a sharp increase in long -term interest rates and to the joint krach on October 19, 1987 of the bond markets and the markets of Actions.

In the longer term, the most important consequences of the Plaza agreements take place on the Japanese economy: very dependent on exports, it is immediately and particularly sensitive to the drop in the dollar and, to fight against a recession that it inevitable judge, the Bank of Japan drops 5 times its discount rate between January 1986 And February 1987 , bringing him back from 5.0 to 2.5 % .

But the Japanese economy is also sensitive to the terms of the dollar drop: the country has accumulated significant external savings, mainly in dollars, precisely, and its repatriation, throughout 1986, while domestic interest rates drop , leads to a significant increase in the price of other available placements: shares and real estate. The Japanese financial bubble of the late 1980s was being born.

Since the unfortunate and above all poorly controlled episode of 1986-1987, the G7 has become careful and a concerted intervention on the exchange market is no longer conceivable only to ensure “market stability”, according to the dedicated formula, and not To try to reverse a trend.

2007: Dollar drop [ modifier | Modifier and code ]

Due to the crisis of subprime , double deficit in the United States, as well as the drop in Fed rates, the dollar has dropped to the point where 1 euro is worth 1.45 ^{[ 21 ]} US dollar, the first ^is November 2007 .

2008: the dollar at the lowest [ modifier | Modifier and code ]

Due to the persistence of cyclical disorders mentioned above, the dollar reaches its lowest historical rate against the euro July 15, 2008 first € € = 1,603 8 $ ^{[ 22 ]} . Since that date, the dollar goes up and the euro/dollar exchange rate has stabilized around 1 € € = 1.45 $ towards the end of the year ( See graphic opposite ).

2010: dollar rise [ modifier | Modifier and code ]

The degradation of the rating of the Greek public debt leads to the drop in the euro against the dollar. In mid-February the euro/dollar exchange rate stood at 1 € € = 1.36 $ to descend to 1.191 7 per June 7 .

According to journalist Myret Zaki, the dollar has lost 97% of its value since 1913 ^{[ 23 ]} . Compared to gold, the dollar loses 98% of its value between 1971 and 2010. The ounce of gold has increased in 40 years from 35 to 1,250 dollars ^{[ c ]} .

Parts and tickets currently in use in the United States

Unit ($)	Figure	Figure on the reverse
Pieces
0.01 ( penny , cent )	Abraham Lincoln	Lincoln Memorial or Union shield (according to the vintage)
0.05 ( nickel )	Thomas Jefferson (2 different types)	Monticello, Thomas Jefferson’s house in Virginia
0.05 ( nickel )	Thomas Jefferson	Figure commemorating the conquest of the West (4 different types)
0.10 ( dime )	Franklin D. Roosevelt	A torch, a branch of oak, an olive branch
0.25 ( quarter )	George Washington	Eagle
0.25 ( quarter )	George Washington	Colonial drum
0.25 ( quarter )	George Washington	State emblems (50 different types)
0.50 ( half dollar )	John F. Kennedy	Seal of the President of the United States
1.00	Sacagawea	AIGLE IN VOL
1.00	President of the United States (39 types)	Statue of Liberty.
Federal reserve tickets
first	George Washington	Large seal of the United States
2	Thomas Jefferson	Declaration of Independence
5	Abraham Lincoln	Lincoln Memorial
ten	Alexander Hamilton	US Treasury seat
20	Andrew Jackson	White House
50	Ulysses S. Grant	Chapters
100	Benjamin Franklin	Independence Hall

Of December 18, 1934 At January 9, 1935 , 100,000 tickets $ were issued. They were used by the banks of the federal reserve for transactions between them.
Tickets of 500, 1,000, 5,000 and 10,000 dollars have not been printed since 1946 ^{[ 24 ]} .

Victor Dubreuil, Five Dollar Bill, around 1885.

The American dollar, symbol of capitalism, of the domination of money and those who own it, has been represented hundreds of times in art and is present in this form in many museums. This currency painting started after the American Civil War as evidenced by the painting Five Dollar Bill (Around 1885) by Victor Dubreuil (The Phillips Collection, Washington (Columbia district)), while painters are interested in all things carried by the dazzling economic growth of their country ^{[ 25 ]} .

The US dollar was used as a symbol of wealth, notably by Salvador Dalí (which André Breton also called an anagrammatic way Avida Dollars ) In The dollar apotheosis .

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