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The emirate of Sicily is colored in dark brown. Previous entities:        (adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || []).push({});after-content-x4Edit – Modify the code – See Wikidata (aide)  L’ Emirate of Sicily is an emirate founded on the island of Sicily, which exists from 831 to 1091 [ first ] . Sa CAPITAL is a Palerme (in Arab : \u0623\u064e\u0628\u0627\u064e\u0644\u064a\u064e\u064e\u0642; Muslims join Sicily to their civilization for the first time in 652, and took control of the whole island, then dependent on the Byzantine Empire, during an extended series of conflicts from 827 to 902. An Arab- Byzantine is developing on the island, producing a multi-confessional and multilingual state. The emirate is conquered by Norman Christian mercenaries under Roger I is Sicily , which founded the county of Sicily in 1071. The last Muslim city in the island, Noto, was conquered in 1091.        (adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || []).push({});after-content-x4Sicilian Muslims remained citizens of the multi-ethnic county and the kingdom of Sicily, until those who are not already converted are expelled in the 1240s. Until the end of the xii It is century, and probably as late as the 1220s, Muslims form a substantial part of the island’s population [ 2 ] , [ 3 ] , [ 4 ] , [ 5 ] , [ 6 ] . Their influence remains in certain elements of the Sicilian language, as well as names and places.   The first work devoted to Muslim Sicily seems to be the work of a counterfeiter, Father Giuseppe Vella Maltais de Palerme, who published in 1784 Council of Sicily , alleged collection of correspondence between Sicilian and sovereign emirs Aghlabides and Fatimids, to which Rosario Gregorio replied in 1790 by his Things Arab, which is the history of the Siclla watching, extensive collection . In the 1840s, Adolphe No\u00ebl des Vergers, at the request of the Government of Louis-Philippe, collection of archives concerning the Norman occupation of Sicily by widening it from its own in Muslim times [ 7 ] . Amari is the first Western modern author to deliver an excited, precise and sourced analysis of Islamic Sicily with his History of Muslims of Sicily published between 1854 and 1872. But, during the XX It is Siettle, the Le autursists in Son in Spain [ 7 ] . In parallel, Maghreb researchers like Mohamed Talbi, Hady Roger Idris, Farhat Dachraoui, Hasan Husn\u012b \u02bfAbd al-Wahhh\u0101b renew the approach of the subject as the extension of the history of North Africa [ 7 ] , but, for lack of rich local sources, underestimate Sicilian particularisms, such as political resistances and religious compromises [ 8 ] . From the 1970s, the progress of archeology enriched historical work on medieval Sicily, mainly studied in terms of the reign of Hauteville. The Arabs in Italy From Francesco Gabrieli and Umberto Scerrato published in 1979, synthesizes historical or archaeological advances on Muslim Sicily, replaced in an Italian context, taking less into account the history of art or numismatics. Historiography has since been enriched with the discoveries of archaeologists such as Fabiola Ardizzone, Lucia Arcifa, Franco d’Angelo or Alessandra Molinari, and writings from various disciplines such as those on the Islamic dimension of the Norman period of the linguist Italian Adalgisa de Simone, British historians Jeremy Johns and Alex Metcalfe, the German Islamologist Albrecht Noth or those more concentrated on the century and a half of Arab domination of the island of American academics Leonard Chiarelli and William Granara [ 7 ] . Table of ContentsFirst attempts at Muslim conquest [ modifier | Modifier and code ] Euphemius revolt and progressive Muslim conquest of the island [ modifier | Modifier and code ] Period as an emirate [ modifier | Modifier and code ] Sicily under Arab domination [ modifier | Modifier and code ] “Ta\u00effa” decline and period [ modifier | Modifier and code ] Consequences [ modifier | Modifier and code ] Notes [ modifier | Modifier and code ] References [ modifier | Modifier and code ] Bibliography [ modifier | Modifier and code ] Related articles [ modifier | Modifier and code ] First attempts at Muslim conquest [ modifier | Modifier and code ] In 535, byzantine general B\u00e9lisaire, after destroying the vandal kingdom, arrived in Sicily, took Palermo, then conquered the rest of the island, then dependence of the Ostrogoth kingdom. As the power of what is called today the Byzantine Empire has declined to the west, Sicily is invaded by the Caliphate des Rachidoune during the reign of the Othman caliph in 652. However, this first invasion is short -lived And the Muslims leave shortly after. In 698, during the Muslim conquest of the Maghreb, the Omeyyads took the nearby port city of Carthage, allowing them to build shipyards and a permanent base to launch more supported attacks [ 9 ] . Around 700, the island of Pantelleria is taken by Muslims and it is only discord between Muslims that prevents an attempted invasion of Sicily. Instead, trade agreements are concluded with Byzantines and Muslim merchants are allowed to exchange goods in Sicilian ports. The first real conquest expedition was launched in 740; That year, the Muslim prince Habib Ibn Abi Obeida al-Fihri, who participated in an attack in 728, managed to take Syracuse. Ready to conquer the whole island, the omeyyads are however forced to return to Tunisia because of the rapid progression of the great Berber revolt in 739\/740. A second attack in 752 only aims to sack the same city. Euphemius revolt and progressive Muslim conquest of the island [ modifier | Modifier and code ] In 826, Euphemius, the commander of the Byzantine fleet of Sicily, forced a nun to marry it. The emperor Michel II Orders General Constantine to end the wedding and cut the nose of Euph\u00e9mius which rises, kills Constantine and occupies Syracuse. In turn, he is defeated and chased in the Maghreb [ first ] . He offers the government of Sicily to Ziyadat Allah, the Emir Aghlabide in Ifriqiya (current Tunisia) in exchange for a place as general and security; Consequently, a Muslim army is sent [ first ] . Ziyadat Allah agrees to conquer Sicily, promising to give it to Euphemius in exchange for an annual tribute, and entrusts his conquest to the attendance Assad Ibn al-Furat, then 70 years old. The Muslim army has 10,000 infantrymen, 700 horsemen and 100 ships, reinforced by Euphemius ships and, after the landing at Mazara del Vallo. A first battle against Loyalist Byzantine troops takes place the July 15, 827 , near Mazara, ending with a aghlabid victory. Assad then conquered the southern shore of the island and besieged Syracuse. After a year of siege and a mutiny attempt, his troops, however, succeeded in defeating a large army sent from Palermo, also supported by a Venetian fleet led by Doge Giustiniano participated. But when an epidemic of plague kills many Muslim troops, as well as Assad himself, Muslims withdraw to the Ch\u00e2teau de Mineo. Later, they go back to the offensive, but do not succeed in conquering Castrogiovanni (the current Enna, where Euphemius is dead) and withdrew to Mazara. In 830, they received a strong reinforcement of 30,000 Ifriqiyennes and Andalusian troops. The Andalusians beat the Byzantine Commander Teodotus in July-August of the same year, but an epidemic of plague forces them again to return to Mazara, then in Ifriqiya. The Ifriqiyennes units sent to besiege Palermo succeed in taking it after a year of siege in September 831 [ ten ] . Palermo becomes the Muslim capital of Sicily, renamed Al-Maadah (“the city”) [ 11 ] . Conquest is a major affair; With considerable resistance and numerous internal struggles, it takes more than a century to Muslims to conquer Byzantine Sicily. Syracuse resists a long time but fell in 878, Taormina fell in 902 and the last Byzantine outpost was taken in 965 [ first ] . Period as an emirate [ modifier | Modifier and code ]  Arab-Norman art and architecture combine Western characteristics (such as classic pillars and friezes) with typically Arab decorations and calligraphies. Sicily is successively directed by the Sunni dynasty Aghlabide in Tunisia and the Shiite Fatimids in Egypt. However, throughout this period, Sunni Muslims constitute the majority of the Muslim community in Sicily [ twelfth ] , most (otherwise all) residents of Palermo are Sunni [ 13 ] , which makes them hostile to Shiite Kalbides [ 14 ] . The Sunni population of the island is reconstituted following Kharidjite rebellions in North Africa from 943 to 947 against the severe religious policies of the Fatimids, causing several waves of refugees fleeing to Sicily to escape the reprisals of the Fatimid [ 15 ] . Byzantines take advantage of temporary discord to occupy the eastern end of the island for several years. After having repressed a revolt, the Caliph Fatimid Ismail Al-Mansur appoints Al-Hassan al-Kalbi (948-964) as an emir of Sicily. He succeeded in controlling the Byzantines continuously revolted and founding the Kalbid dynasty. Raids in southern Italy continue under the Kalbides at xi It is century and in 982, a Germanic army under Otton II of the Holy Empire is defeated near Crotone in Calabria. Under the emir Youssouf al-Kalbi (986-998), a period of continuous decline begins. Under al-Akhal (1017-1037), the dynastic conflict intensified, the factions of the ruling family combine variously with the Byzantine Empire and the Zirides, a Berber dynasty which reigns over Ifriqiya. After this period, the Ziride chief Al-Muizz Ibn Badis (1036-1040), tries to annex the island, while intervening in the affairs of Muslims in conflict. However, the attempt finally failed [ 16 ] , [ 17 ] .  A painting of Arab-Muslim musicians at the court of Roger II Sicily ( xii It is century). Sicily under Arab domination [ modifier | Modifier and code ] The new Arab leaders initiate land reforms, which increases productivity and encourages the growth of small farms, which harms the domination of land properties. Arabs still improve irrigation systems through qanats, and introduce oranges, lemons, pistachios and sugar cane in Sicily. A description of Palermo is given by Ibn Hawqal, a Baghdad merchant who visits Sicily in 950 [Ref. necessary] . A fortified place called Kasr (the palace) is the center of Palermo until today, with the great Mosque of Friday on the site of the posterior Roman cathedral. The suburbs of Al-khalisa (Kalsa) contained the Sultan’s palace, baths, a mosque, government offices and a private prison. Ibn Hawqual has 7,000 individual butchers in 150 stores. In 1050, Palermo had 350,000 inhabitants, which made it one of the largest cities in Europe, but behind the capital of Al-Andalus, Cordoba, and the Byzantine capital, Constantinople, which has more than 450 000 inhabitants [ Ref. desired] . The population of Palermo falls at 150,000 under the reign of the Normans, while the population of Cordoba decreases as Muslims weaken there; In 1330, the population of Palermo fell to 51,000 people [ 18 ] . The traveler, traveler and Arabic poet Ibn Jubair visits the region at the end of xii It is century and described Al-Kasr And Al-khalisa (Kalsa): \u201cThe capital has two donations, splendor and wealth. It contains all the real and imagined beauty that everyone could wish. Splendor and grace adorn the places and the countryside; The streets and roads are wide and the eye is dazzled by the beauty of its situation. It is a city full of wonders, with buildings similar to those of Cordoba [sic], built in limestone. A permanent jet of water from four sources crosses the city. There are so many mosques that it is impossible to count them. Most of them also serve as schools. The eye is dazzled by all this splendor. \u00bb\u00bb  [Ref. necessary] Throughout this reign, the Sicilians continue to revolt, especially in the east, and part of the land was even reoccupied before being destroyed [ 19 ] . The local population conquered by Muslims is made up of Romanized Catholic Sicilians in Western Sicily and Greek Christians, mainly in the eastern half of the island, but there is also a large number of Jews [ 20 ] . Christians and Jews are reduced under Muslim domination to the state of The issues : subject to certain restrictions and required to pay the Jizya tax in which they can practice their religion provided they hide and the Kharaj or property tax, in exchange for which they are not expelled; not being Muslims they do not pay the Years which is the third of the pillars of Islam. Under Arab domination, there are different categories of payers of Jizya , but their common denominator is the payment of the Jizya as a brand of submission to Muslim domination in exchange for protection against foreign and internal aggressions. The conquered population can avoid this servant status by converting to Islam. Whether by honest religious conviction or by constraint, a large number of Aboriginal Sicilians convert to Islam [Ref. necessary] . However, even after 100 years of Islamic domination, many Christian communities of Greek language thrive, especially in northeast of Sicily, as The issues . This is largely the result of the system Jizya which allows coexistence. This coexistence with the conquered population collapses after the reconquest of Sicily, especially after the death of the king Guillaume II Sicily In 1189.  Roger de Sicily receiving the keys to the city [of Palermo]., by Giuseppe Patania (1830). “Ta\u00effa” decline and period [ modifier | Modifier and code ] The emirate of Sicily begins to fragment as intra-dynastic quarrels within the Muslim regime [ first ] . In 1044, under the emir Hassan al-Samsam, which established the Emirate Al-Samsam of Sicily, the island was divided into four shelter , or small fiefs: the crime de Trapani, Marsala, Mazara and Sciacca, a certain Abdallah Ibn Mankut; That of Girgenti, Castrogiovanni and Castronuovo (Ibn al-Hawwas); that of Palermo and Catania; and that of Syracuse (Ibn Thumna). In 1065, all were united by Ayyoub Ibn Tamim, the son of the Ziride emir of Ifriqiya. In 1068, he left Sicily and what remains under Muslim control fell under two shelter : one led by Ibn Abbad (known as Benavert in the Western Chronicles) in Syracuse and the other under Hammud in Qas’r Ianni (current Enna).  Map of Sicily disputed before the Battle of Cerami, 1063. At XI It is century, the powers of southern continental Italy hired Norman mercenaries, Christian descendants of the Vikings; These are the Normans under Roger\u00a0 I is who take Sicily from Muslims [ first ] . Ibn at Timnath, Emir of Sicily, beaten by his brother-in-law the Emir Ibn Al-Hawas d’Agrigent, then at the Abois, solicited the help of Roger, then Lord of Mileto, who immediately decides to invade Sicily. The latter requests the reinforcement of Robert Guiscard. Thus began the conquest of Sicily, of which Roger became the count at the beginning of 1072 [ 21 ] . Roger\u00a0 I is having an army of 700 knights . The Zirides send a support force led by Ali and Ayyoub Ibn Tamin. However, the Berbers were defeated in 1063, during the battle of Cerami. The important Christian population lifts against Muslims in power [ 22 ] . In 1068, Roger de Hauteville and his men again beat the Muslim forces commanded by Ayyoub Ibn Tamim in Misilmeri. The Berbers left Sicily in disorder after the defeat and Catania falls into the hands of the Normans in 1071, followed, after a year of siege, of Palermo in 1072. Trapani capitulates the same year. The loss of the main port cities has a severe blow to Muslim power on the island. The last pocket of active resistance is Syracuse, governed by Ibn Abbad (known as Benavert by the Normans). He defeated Jourdain de Hauteville, son of Roger de Sicily in 1075, again occupied Catania in 1081 and attacks the calabre soon after. However, Roger besieged Syracuse in 1086 and Ibn Abbad tries to break the siege with the naval battle, in which he dies accidentally. Syracuse goes after this defeat. His wife and son flee to Noto and Bute. Meanwhile, the city of Qas’r Ianni (Enna) is still governed by its emir, Ibn al-Hawas, which is holding for years. His successor, Hamud, goes and converts to Christianity only in 1087. After his conversion, Ibn Hamud subsequently became a member of the Christian nobility and withdrew with his family in a Calabrian domain provided by Roger I is . In 1091, Butera and Noto in the southern tip of Sicily and on the island of Malta, the last Arab bastions fell easily in the hands of Christians. After the conquest of Sicily, the Normans destroy the local emir, Yousouf Ibn Abdallah, but do it while respecting Arab customs [ 23 ] . Consequences [ modifier | Modifier and code ]  The Norman Kingdom of Sicily under Roger II is multi-ethnic and tolerant on the religious level [ 24 ] . Normans, Jews, Muslim Arabs, Byzantine Greeks, native Lombards and Sicilians live in relative harmony [ 25 ] , [ 26 ] . Arabic remains a language of government and administration for at least a century in Norman domination, and traces remain in the Sicilian language and obviously more in the Maltese language today [ 9 ] . Muslims also maintain their domination in industry, retail and production, while Muslim craftsmen and specialized knowledge of government and administration are much sought after [ 27 ] . However, after the Normans conquered the island, Muslims faced the choice of voluntary departure or the subjugation of Christian domination. Many Muslims prefer to leave, if they have the means to do so. “The transformation of Sicily into a Christian island” , notes Abulafia, “Was also, paradoxically, the work of those whose culture was threatened” [ 28 ] . Despite the presence of an Arabic -speaking Christian population, it is the Greek ecclesiastics that attract Muslim peasants to receive baptism and even adopt Greek Christian names; In several cases, Christian serfs bearing Greek names inscribed in the registers of Monreale have living Muslim parents [ 29 ] , [ 30 ] . Norman sovereigns follow a constant Latinization policy by bringing thousands of Italian settlers from the northwest and southern Italy and others from southeast of France. To date, communities in the center of Sicily speak the Gallo-Italic dialect. Some Muslims choose to simulate conversion, but such a recourse can only provide personal protection and cannot support a community [ thirty first ] . Gradually, a hatred crystallizes against Muslims, in particular the converts and eunuchs, essential elements of the royal administration, rarely from the island, like the emir Philippe de Mahdia, executed as a traitor in 1153. In 1191, the Lombards, pushed by the Latin barons in conflict with royal power, fomes collective massacres against Muslim communities, in Palermo, after the order of disarmament of the Muslims of Maion de Bari, then in the Val de Noto ‘Instruction in particular of Roger Sclavo, count of Butera [ 32 ] . Muslim and Christian communities in Sicily have become more and more geographically separated. Muslim communities of the island are mainly concentrated beyond an internal border which separates the southwest half of the northeast Christian island. When King Guillaume II died in 1189, royal protection towards religious minorities who pay the tax, is lifted and the door is open for generalized attacks against Muslims of the island. This destroys any hope of coexistence, even if the respective populations are unequal. Upon coming to power in Tancr\u00e8de, one of the sponsors of the 1161 massacres, the Muslims of Palermo led by five RULES Pursuant who refuse to submit to the new king, take refuge in the hinterland [ 32 ] . The death of Henri WE In 1197 and that of his wife Constance a year later plunged Sicily into political turmoil. With the loss of royal protection and with Fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric II Still at young, Sicily becomes a battlefield for the German and papal rival forces. Muslim rebels on the island rose to the side of German warlords like Markward from Anweiler. In response, Innocent III Declare a crusade against Markward, alleging that he has concluded an impious alliance with the Saracens of Sicily. Nevertheless, in 1206, this same pope tried to convince Muslim leaders to remain loyal [ 33 ] . At that time, the Muslim rebellion was critical, the Muslims controlling Jato, Encella, Platani, Celso, Calatrasi, Corleone (taken in 1208), Guastanella and Cinisi. In other words, the Muslim revolt extends over a whole section of Western Sicily. The rebels are led by Mohammed Ibn Abbad. He has titled “Prince of Believers”, struck his own pieces and tried to find Muslim support for other parts of the Muslim world [ 34 ] , [ 35 ] . However, Fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric II , become an adult, reacted by launching a series of campaigns against Muslim rebels in 1221. The forces of Hohenstaufen rout the defenders of Jato, Endella and other fortresses. Rather than exterminating Muslims, Fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric II And Christians began in 1223 the first deportations of Muslims in Lucera in Puglia [ 36 ] . A year later, expeditions are sent against Malta and Djerba to establish royal control and prevent their Muslim populations from helping the rebels [ 37 ] . Paradoxically, Saracen archers are a common component of these “Christian” armies of this time [ 38 ] . The Muslim presence in Sicily ends in the late 1240s, when the last deportations to Lucera take place [ 32 ] . The house of Hohenstaufen and its successors (Capetian house of Anjou and Aragonese house in Barcelona) have gradually “Latinized” Sicily over two centuries and this social process laid the foundations for the introduction of Latin Catholicism (as opposed to Byzantine) . The Latinization process has been largely encouraged by the Roman Church and its liturgy [ 39 ] . If the writings are numerous, few material traces remain of the Arab domination of Sicily. The Arabic language remains in many toponyms, even if their dating is not necessarily prior to the Norman conquest after which Arabic is still widely spoken. Many coins struck by Sicilian emirs have been found [ 40 ] . The most notable architectural vestiges are the remains of a mosque integrated in the construction of the Saint-Jean des Ermites church, the foundations of the Favara Palace and the Royal Palace, the development of the baths in Cefal\u00e0 Diana [ 40 ] . Other Arab archaeological traces, and in particular military, were discovered in Collesano, Endella, Monte Lato, Monte Maranfusa, Calathamet, Castello San Pietro (Palermo) and Monte Barbaro [ 40 ] . The influence of Muslim art is then perpetuated within the culture of Norman Sicily [ 40 ] . Al-HASSAN IBN Ali Al-Kalbi (948-953) Ahmed ibn al-Hazziyya (953-969) Yaish (usurper, 969) Ahmed ibn Al-Hassan Al-Muizziyya (969-970) Abou al-Qasim ali ibn al-chassan al-kalbi (970-982) Jabir Ibrahim Ali (982-983) Jafar Ibrahim Mohammed (983-986) Abdallah IBN Mohammed (986) Youssouf Al-Kalbi (986-998) Jafar Al-Kalbi II (998-1019) Ahmed II Al-Akhal (1017-1037) Abdallah Abou Hafs (1035-1040, usurper; defeated and killed Ahmed II in 1037) Hassan Al-SAMSAM (1040-1044; Mort En 1053) Cataniah : (1053-?), Ibn Al-Maklati, D\u00e9fait Par Syracuse and later Catania (1053-1062): Mohammed Ibn Ibrahim (Ibn Thumna) Agrigente et castrogiovani (1053-1065) : Ali ibn Nima (Ibn Al-Hawwas) kurapa and Ezara (1053-1071): Aridlah Ibnl Mann. Ayyoub Ibn Tamim (Ziride): (1065-1068; A uni les Taifas) Palermo (1068-1071): Republic Agrigento et Castortogovanni (1065-107): Hamud Syracuse and Catania: (1071-1086): Ibn Abbad (Benavert) Notes [ modifier | Modifier and code ] References [ modifier | Modifier and code ] \u2191 a b c d e and f “A very brief history of Sicily” Archeology.stanford.edu. October 7, 2007 . Archived l’original (PDF) and June 9, 2007  \u2191 (in) Metcalfe, A. (Alex) , The Muslims of medieval Italy , Edinburgh University Press, 2009 , 336 p.  (ISBN\u00a0 978-0-7486-2911-4 , 0748629114 And 0748620079 , OCLC\u00a0 650246468 , read online ) , p. 142  \u2191 (it) Michele Even , History of Muslims of Sicily , vol. III, F. Le Monnier, 1854 , p. 302  \u2191 (in) Roberto Tottoli , Routledge handbook of Islam in the West , Routledge, September 19, 2014 (ISBN\u00a0 978-1-317-74402-3 , 1317744020 And 1322157812 , OCLC\u00a0 891447660 , read online ) , p. 56  \u2191 (in) Graham A. Loud and Alex Metcalfe , The society of Norman Italy (illustrated edition) , Brill, first is January 2002 (ISBN\u00a0 1-4175-3654-3 , 9781417536542 And 9004125418 , OCLC\u00a0 56582745 , read online ) , p. 289  \u2191 (in) Jeremy Johns , Arabic Administration in Norman Sicily\u00a0: The Royal Diwan , Cambridge University Press, 2002 (ISBN\u00a0 978-1-139-44-44-6-6 , read online ) , p. 284  \u2191 A B C and D Annliese Nef \u00ab Milestones for new questions about the history of Islamic Sicily: written sources \u00bb, Mixtures of the French school in Rome , vol. 116, n O 1, 2004 , p. 7\u201317 ( read online , consulted the May 23, 2020 )  \u2191 Henri Brescia \u00ab Conclusions \u00bb, Mixtures of the French school in Rome , vol. 116, n O 1, 2004 , p. 501\u2013510 ( read online , consulted the May 24 2020 )  \u2191 a et b Finley, M. I. (Moses I.), 1912-1986. , A history of Sicily. , Chatto & Windus, 1968 (ISBN\u00a0 0-7011-1347-2 , 9780701113476 And 0670122726 , OCLC\u00a0 891361 , read online )  \u2191 Previte-Orton 1971, p. \u00a0vol. 1, p. 370.  \u2191 Islam in Sicily  archive the July 14, 2011 at the Wayback Machine., By Alwi Alatas  \u2191 (in) Catlos, Brian A. , Infidel kings and unholy warriors\u00a0: faith, power, and violence in the age of crusade and jihad , 2014 , 390 p.  (ISBN\u00a0 978-0-8090-5837-2 , 0809058375 And 0374712050 , OCLC\u00a0 868509999 , read online ) , p. 142  \u2191 (it) Italy. Central Office for assets archival. and a mixed commission for the history and culture of the Jews in Italy. , Italy Judaic: Jews in Sicily until the expulsion of 1492: Proceedings of the 5th International Conference, Palermo, 15-19 June 1992. , Rome, Ministry for Cultural and Environmental Heritage, Central Office for Archival Heritage, 1995 , 500 p.  (ISBN\u00a0 88-7125-102-4 And 9788871251028 , OCLC\u00a0 34551625 , read online ) , p. 145  \u2191 (in) Bloom, Jonathan (Jonathan M.) , Arts of the city victorious\u00a0: Islamic art and architecture in Fatimid North Africa and Egypt , New Haven, Yale University Press, 2007 , 236 p.  (ISBN\u00a0 978-0-300-13542-8 And 0300135424 , OCLC\u00a0 165081886 , read online ) , p. 190  \u2191 (in) Goodwin, Stefan, 1941- , Africa in Europe\u00a0: Antiquity into the Age of Global Exploration , Lexington Books, 2009 , 260 p.  (ISBN\u00a0 978-0-7391-2994-4 , 0739129945 And 1299787452 , OCLC\u00a0 647159988 , read online ) , p. 83  \u2191 (in) McKitterick, Rosamond. , The New Cambridge medieval history. , Cambridge (GB), Cambridge University Press, 1995-2005, 979\u00a0 p.  (ISBN\u00a0 0-521-36291-1 , 9780521362917 And 052136292x , OCLC\u00a0 29184676 , read online ) , p. 696  \u2191 Massimo Costa. Institutional and political history of Sicily. A compendium . Amazon. Palermo. 2019. 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