[{"@context":"http:\/\/schema.org\/","@type":"BlogPosting","@id":"https:\/\/wiki.edu.vn\/en\/wiki21\/photodiode-wikipedia\/#BlogPosting","mainEntityOfPage":"https:\/\/wiki.edu.vn\/en\/wiki21\/photodiode-wikipedia\/","headline":"Photodiode – Wikipedia","name":"Photodiode – Wikipedia","description":"before-content-x4 Converts light into current after-content-x4 A photodiode is a light-sensitive semiconductor diode.[1] It produces current when it absorbs photons.","datePublished":"2019-11-20","dateModified":"2019-11-20","author":{"@type":"Person","@id":"https:\/\/wiki.edu.vn\/en\/wiki21\/author\/lordneo\/#Person","name":"lordneo","url":"https:\/\/wiki.edu.vn\/en\/wiki21\/author\/lordneo\/","image":{"@type":"ImageObject","@id":"https:\/\/secure.gravatar.com\/avatar\/c9645c498c9701c88b89b8537773dd7c?s=96&d=mm&r=g","url":"https:\/\/secure.gravatar.com\/avatar\/c9645c498c9701c88b89b8537773dd7c?s=96&d=mm&r=g","height":96,"width":96}},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Enzyklop\u00e4die","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","@id":"https:\/\/wiki.edu.vn\/wiki4\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/08\/download.jpg","url":"https:\/\/wiki.edu.vn\/wiki4\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/08\/download.jpg","width":600,"height":60}},"image":{"@type":"ImageObject","@id":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/0\/06\/Photodiode_operation.png\/350px-Photodiode_operation.png","url":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/0\/06\/Photodiode_operation.png\/350px-Photodiode_operation.png","height":"256","width":"350"},"url":"https:\/\/wiki.edu.vn\/en\/wiki21\/photodiode-wikipedia\/","wordCount":8537,"articleBody":"     (adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || []).push({});before-content-x4Converts light into current       (adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || []).push({});after-content-x4A photodiode is a light-sensitive semiconductor diode.[1] It produces current when it absorbs photons.The package of a photodiode allows light (or infrared or ultraviolet radiation, or X-rays) to reach the sensitive part of the device. The package may include lenses or optical filters. Devices designed for use specially as a photodiode use a PIN junction rather than a p\u2013n junction, to increase the speed of response. Photodiodes usually have a slower response time as their surface area increases.  A photodiode is designed to operate in reverse bias.[2] A solar cell used to generate electric solar power is a large area photodiode.Photodiodes are used in scientific and industrial instruments to measure light intensity, either for its own sake or as a measure of some other property (density of smoke, for example). A photodiode can be used as the receiver of data encoded on an infrared beam, as in household remote controls. Photodiodes can be used to form an optocoupler, allowing transmission of signals between circuits without a direct metallic connection between them, allowing isolation from high voltage differences.       (adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || []).push({});after-content-x4Table of ContentsPrinciple of operation[edit]Photovoltaic mode[edit]Photoconductive mode[edit]Related devices[edit]Materials[edit]Unwanted and wanted photodiode effects[edit]Features[edit]Applications[edit]Comparison with photomultipliers[edit]Pinned photodiode[edit]Photodiode array[edit]Passive-pixel image sensor[edit]See also[edit]References[edit]External links[edit]Principle of operation[edit]A photodiode is a PIN structure or p\u2013n junction. When a photon of sufficient energy strikes the diode, it creates an electron\u2013hole pair. This mechanism is also known as the inner photoelectric effect. If the absorption occurs in the junction’s depletion region, or one diffusion length away from it, these carriers are swept from the junction by the built-in electric field of the depletion region. Thus holes move toward the anode, and electrons toward the cathode, and a photocurrent is produced. The total current through the photodiode is the sum of the dark current (current that is generated in the absence of light) and the photocurrent, so the dark current must be minimized to maximize the sensitivity of the device.[3]To first order, for a given spectral distribution, the photocurrent is linearly proportional to the irradiance.[4]       (adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || []).push({});after-content-x4Photovoltaic mode[edit]  I-V characteristic of a photodiode. The linear load lines represent the response of the external circuit: I=(Applied bias voltage-Diode voltage)\/Total resistance. The points of intersection with the curves represent the actual current and voltage for a given bias, resistance and illumination.In photovoltaic mode (zero bias), photocurrent flows into the anode through a short circuit to the cathode.  If the circuit is opened or has a load impedance, restricting the photocurrent out of the device, a voltage builds up in the direction that forward biases the diode, that is, anode positive with respect to cathode.  If the circuit is shorted or the impedance is low, a forward current will consume all or some of the photocurrent. This mode exploits the photovoltaic effect, which is the basis for solar cells \u2013 a traditional solar cell is just a large area photodiode.  For optimum power output, the photovoltaic cell will be operated at a voltage that causes only a small forward current compared to the photocurrent.[4]Photoconductive mode[edit]In photoconductive mode the diode is reverse biased, that is, with the cathode driven positive with respect to the anode.  This reduces the response time because the additional reverse bias increases the width of the depletion layer, which decreases the junction’s capacitance and increases the region with an electric field that will cause electrons to be quickly collected. The reverse bias also creates dark current without much change in the photocurrent.Although this mode is faster, the photoconductive mode can exhibit more electronic noise due to dark current or avalanche effects.[5] The leakage current of a good PIN diode is so low ({displaystyle D^{star }}) is the detectivity multiplied by the square root of the area (A{displaystyle A}) of the photodetector (D\u22c6=DA{displaystyle D^{star }=D{sqrt {A}}}) for a 1\u00a0Hz bandwidth.  The specific detectivity allows different systems to be compared independent of sensor area and system bandwidth; a higher detectivity value indicates a low-noise device or system.[17] Although it is traditional to give (D\u22c6{displaystyle D^{star }}) in many catalogues as a measure of the diode’s quality, in practice, it is hardly ever the key parameter.When a photodiode is used in an optical communication system, all these parameters contribute to the sensitivity of the optical receiver which is the minimum input power required for the receiver to achieve a specified bit error rate.Applications[edit]P\u2013n photodiodes are used in similar applications to other photodetectors, such as photoconductors, charge-coupled devices (CCD), and photomultiplier tubes. They may be used to generate an output which is dependent upon the illumination (analog for measurement), or to change the state of circuitry (digital, either for control and switching or for digital signal processing).Photodiodes are used in consumer electronics devices such as compact disc players, smoke detectors, medical devices[18] and the receivers for infrared remote control devices used to control equipment from televisions to air conditioners. For many applications either photodiodes or photoconductors may be used. Either type of photosensor may be used for light measurement, as in camera light meters, or to respond to light levels, as in switching on street lighting after dark.Photosensors of all types may be used to respond to incident light or to a source of light which is part of the same circuit or system. A photodiode is often combined into a single component with an emitter of light, usually a light-emitting diode (LED), either to detect the presence of a mechanical obstruction to the beam (slotted optical switch) or to couple two digital or analog circuits while maintaining extremely high electrical isolation between them, often for safety (optocoupler). The combination of LED and photodiode is also used in many sensor systems to characterize different types of products based on their optical absorbance.Photodiodes are often used for accurate measurement of light intensity in science and industry. They generally have a more linear response than photoconductors.They are also widely used in various medical applications, such as detectors for computed tomography (coupled with scintillators), instruments to analyze samples (immunoassay), and pulse oximeters.PIN diodes are much faster and more sensitive than p\u2013n junction diodes, and hence are often used for optical communications and in lighting regulation.P\u2013n photodiodes are not used to measure extremely low light intensities. Instead, if high sensitivity is needed, avalanche photodiodes, intensified charge-coupled devices or photomultiplier tubes are used for applications such as astronomy, spectroscopy, night vision equipment and laser rangefinding.Comparison with photomultipliers[edit]Advantages compared to photomultipliers:[19]Excellent linearity of output current as a function of incident lightSpectral response from 190\u00a0nm to 1100\u00a0nm (silicon), longer wavelengths with other semiconductor materialsLow noiseRuggedized to mechanical stressLow costCompact and light weightLong lifetimeHigh quantum efficiency, typically 60\u201380%[20]No high voltage requiredDisadvantages compared to photomultipliers:Small areaNo internal gain (except avalanche photodiodes, but their gain is typically 102\u2013103 compared to 105-108 for the photomultiplier)Much lower overall sensitivityPhoton counting only possible with specially designed, usually cooled photodiodes, with special electronic circuitsResponse time for many designs is slowerLatent effectPinned photodiode[edit]The pinned photodiode (PPD) has a shallow implant (P+ or N+) in N-type or P-type diffusion layer, respectively, over a P-type or N-type (respectively) substrate layer, such that the intermediate diffusion layer can be fully depleted of majority carriers, like the base region of a bipolar junction transistor.  The PPD (usually PNP) is used in CMOS active-pixel sensors; a precursor NPN variant with a clocked top N layer was invented at Sony in 1975 for use in CCD image sensors.Early charge-coupled device image sensors suffered from shutter lag. This was largely resolved with the invention of the pinned photodiode.[21] It was invented by Nobukazu Teranishi, Hiromitsu Shiraki and Yasuo Ishihara at NEC in 1980.[21][22] They recognized that lag can be eliminated if the signal carriers could be transferred from the photodiode to the CCD. This led to their invention of the pinned photodiode, a photodetector structure with low lag, low noise, high quantum efficiency and low dark current.[21] It was first publicly reported by Teranishi and Ishihara with A. Kohono, E. Oda and K. Arai in 1982, with the addition of an anti-blooming structure.[21][23] The new photodetector structure invented at NEC was given the name “pinned photodiode” (PPD) by B.C. Burkey at Kodak in 1984. In 1987, the PPD began to be incorporated into most CCD sensors, becoming a fixture in consumer electronic video cameras and then digital still cameras.[21]In 1994, Eric Fossum, while working at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), proposed an improvement to the CMOS sensor: the integration of the pinned photodiode. A CMOS sensor with PPD technology was first fabricated in 1995 by a joint JPL and Kodak team that included Fossum along with P.P.K. Lee, R.C. Gee, R.M. Guidash and T.H. Lee. Since then, the PPD has been used in nearly all CMOS sensors. The CMOS sensor with PPD technology was further advanced and refined by R.M. Guidash in 1997, K. Yonemoto and H. Sumi in 2000, and I. Inoue in 2003. This led to CMOS sensors achieve imaging performance on par with CCD sensors, and later exceeding CCD sensors.[21]Photodiode array[edit]  A one-dimensional photodiode array chip with more than 200 diodes in the line across the center  A two-dimensional photodiode array of only 4 \u00d7 4 pixels occupies the left side of the first optical mouse sensor chip, c. 1982.A one-dimensional array of hundreds or thousands of photodiodes can be used as a position sensor, for example as part of an angle sensor.[24]  A two-dimensional array is used in image sensors and optical mice.In some applications, photodiode arrays allow for high-speed parallel readout, as opposed to integrating scanning electronics as in a charge-coupled device (CCD) or CMOS sensor.  The optical mouse chip shown in the photo has parallel (not multiplexed) access to all 16 photodiodes in its 4 \u00d7 4 array.Passive-pixel image sensor[edit]The passive-pixel sensor (PPS) is a type of photodiode array. It was the precursor to the active-pixel sensor (APS).[21] A passive-pixel sensor consists of passive pixels which are read out without amplification, with each pixel consisting of a photodiode and a MOSFET switch.[25] In a photodiode array, pixels contain a p\u2013n junction, integrated capacitor, and MOSFETs as selection transistors. A photodiode array was proposed by G. Weckler in 1968, predating the CCD.[26] This was the basis for the PPS.[21]The noise of photodiode arrays is sometimes a limitation to performance. It was not possible to fabricate active pixel sensors with a practical pixel size in the 1970s, due to limited microlithography technology at the time.[26]See also[edit]References[edit]\u00a0This article incorporates public domain material from Federal Standard 1037C. General Services Administration. Archived from the original on 2022-01-22.^ Pearsall, Thomas (2010). Photonics Essentials, 2nd edition. McGraw-Hill. ISBN\u00a0978-0-07-162935-5. Archived from the original on 2021-08-17. Retrieved 2021-02-25.^ Cox, James F. (2001). Fundamentals of linear electronics: integrated and discrete. Cengage Learning. pp.\u00a091\u2013. ISBN\u00a0978-0-7668-3018-9.^ Tavernier, Filip  and Steyaert, Michiel (2011) High-Speed Optical Receivers with Integrated Photodiode in Nanoscale CMOS. Springer. ISBN\u00a01-4419-9924-8. Chapter 3 From Light to Electric Current \u2013 The Photodiode^ a b H\u00e4berlin, Heinrich (2012). Photovoltaics: System Design and Practice. John Wiley & Sons. pp.\u00a0SA3\u2013PA11\u201314. ISBN\u00a09781119978381. Retrieved 19 April 2019.^ “Photodiode Application Notes \u2013 Excelitas \u2013 see note 4” (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-11-13. Retrieved 2014-11-13.^ Pearsall, Thomas; Pollack, Martin (1985). Compound Semiconductor Photodiodes, Semiconductors and Semimetals, Vol 22D. Elsevier. pp.\u00a0173\u2013245. doi:10.1016\/S0080-8784(08)62953-1.^ Riordan, Michael; Hoddeson, Lillian (1998). Crystal Fire: The Invention of the Transistor and the Birth of the Information Age. ISBN\u00a09780393318517.^ “The phototransistor”. Bell Laboratories Record. May 1950.^ P\u00e9rez-Tom\u00e1s, Amador; Lima, Anderson; Billon, Quentin; Shirley, Ian; Catalan, Gustau; Lira-Cant\u00fa, M\u00f3nica (2018). “A Solar Transistor and Photoferroelectric Memory”. Advanced Functional Materials. 28 (17): 1707099. doi:10.1002\/adfm.201707099. hdl:10261\/199048. ISSN\u00a01616-3028. S2CID\u00a0102819292.^ Held. G, Introduction to Light Emitting Diode Technology and Applications, CRC Press, (Worldwide, 2008). Ch. 5 p. 116. ISBN\u00a01-4200-7662-0^ Yin, Zongyou; Li, Hai; Li, Hong; Jiang, Lin; Shi, Yumeng; Sun, Yinghui; Lu, Gang; Zhang, Qing; Chen, Xiaodong; Zhang, Hua (21 December 2011). “Single-Layer MoS Phototransistors”. ACS Nano. 6 (1): 74\u201380. arXiv:1310.8066. doi:10.1021\/nn2024557. PMID\u00a022165908. S2CID\u00a027038582.^ Shanfield, Z. et al (1988) Investigation of radiation effects on semiconductor devices and integrated circuits[dead link], DNA-TR-88-221^ Iniewski, Krzysztof (ed.) (2010), Radiation Effects in Semiconductors, CRC Press, ISBN\u00a0978-1-4398-2694-2^ Zeller, H.R. (1995). “Cosmic ray induced failures in high power semiconductor devices”. Solid-State Electronics. 38 (12): 2041\u20132046. Bibcode:1995SSEle..38.2041Z. doi:10.1016\/0038-1101(95)00082-5.^ May, T.C.; Woods, M.H. (1979). “Alpha-particle-induced soft errors in dynamic memories”. IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices. 26 (1): 2\u20139. Bibcode:1979ITED…26….2M. doi:10.1109\/T-ED.1979.19370. S2CID\u00a043748644. Cited in Baumann, R. C. (2004). “Soft errors in commercial integrated circuits”. International Journal of High Speed Electronics and Systems. 14 (2): 299\u2013309. doi:10.1142\/S0129156404002363. alpha particles emitted from the natural radioactive decay of uranium, thorium, and daughter isotopes present as impurities in packaging materials were found to be the dominant cause of [soft error rate] in [dynamic random-access memories].^ Erzberger, Arno (2016-06-21). “Halbleitertechnik Der LED fehlt der Doppelpfeil”. Elektronik (in German). Archived from the original on 2017-02-14. Retrieved 2017-02-14.^ Brooker, Graham (2009) Introduction to Sensors for Ranging and Imaging, ScitTech Publishing. p. 87. ISBN\u00a09781891121746^ E. Aguilar Pelaez et al., “LED power reduction trade-offs for ambulatory pulse oximetry,” 2007 29th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society, Lyon, 2007, pp. 2296-2299. doi: 10.1109\/IEMBS.2007.4352784, URL: http:\/\/ieeexplore.ieee.org\/stamp\/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=4352784&isnumber=4352185^ Photodiode Technical Guide Archived 2007-01-04 at the Wayback Machine on Hamamatsu website^ Knoll, F.G. (2010). Radiation detection and measurement, 4th ed. Wiley, Hoboken, NJ. p. 298. ISBN\u00a0978-0-470-13148-0^ a b c d e f g h Fossum, Eric R.; Hondongwa, D. B. (2014). “A Review of the Pinned Photodiode for CCD and CMOS Image Sensors”. IEEE Journal of the Electron Devices Society. 2 (3): 33\u201343. doi:10.1109\/JEDS.2014.2306412.^ U.S. Patent 4,484,210: Solid-state imaging device having a reduced image lag^ Teranishi, Nobuzaku; Kohono, A.; Ishihara, Yasuo; Oda, E.; Arai, K. (December 1982). “No image lag photodiode structure in the interline CCD image sensor”. 1982 International Electron Devices Meeting: 324\u2013327. doi:10.1109\/IEDM.1982.190285. S2CID\u00a044669969.^ Gao, Wei (2010). Precision Nanometrology: Sensors and Measuring Systems for Nanomanufacturing. Springer. pp.\u00a015\u201316. ISBN\u00a0978-1-84996-253-7.^ Kozlowski, L. J.; Luo, J.; Kleinhans, W. E.; Liu, T. (14 September 1998). “Comparison of passive and active pixel schemes for CMOS visible imagers”. Infrared Readout Electronics IV. International Society for Optics and Photonics. 3360: 101\u2013110. Bibcode:1998SPIE.3360..101K. doi:10.1117\/12.584474. S2CID\u00a0123351913.^ a b Fossum, Eric R. (12 July 1993).  Blouke, Morley M. (ed.). “Active pixel sensors: are CCDs dinosaurs?”. SPIE Proceedings Vol. 1900: Charge-Coupled Devices and Solid State Optical Sensors III. International Society for Optics and Photonics. 1900: 2\u201314. Bibcode:1993SPIE.1900….2F. CiteSeerX\u00a010.1.1.408.6558. doi:10.1117\/12.148585. S2CID\u00a010556755.External links[edit]     (adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || []).push({});after-content-x4"},{"@context":"http:\/\/schema.org\/","@type":"BreadcrumbList","itemListElement":[{"@type":"ListItem","position":1,"item":{"@id":"https:\/\/wiki.edu.vn\/en\/wiki21\/#breadcrumbitem","name":"Enzyklop\u00e4die"}},{"@type":"ListItem","position":2,"item":{"@id":"https:\/\/wiki.edu.vn\/en\/wiki21\/photodiode-wikipedia\/#breadcrumbitem","name":"Photodiode – Wikipedia"}}]}]