[{"@context":"http:\/\/schema.org\/","@type":"BlogPosting","@id":"https:\/\/wiki.edu.vn\/en\/wiki24\/assamese-language-wikipedia\/#BlogPosting","mainEntityOfPage":"https:\/\/wiki.edu.vn\/en\/wiki24\/assamese-language-wikipedia\/","headline":"Assamese language – Wikipedia","name":"Assamese language – Wikipedia","description":"before-content-x4 Indo-Aryan language spoken in Assam, India after-content-x4 Assamese ([4]), also Axomiya ([\u0254x\u0254mija] \u0985\u09b8\u09ae\u09c0\u09af\u09bc\u09be),[5] is an Indo-Aryan language spoken mainly","datePublished":"2018-04-17","dateModified":"2018-04-17","author":{"@type":"Person","@id":"https:\/\/wiki.edu.vn\/en\/wiki24\/author\/lordneo\/#Person","name":"lordneo","url":"https:\/\/wiki.edu.vn\/en\/wiki24\/author\/lordneo\/","image":{"@type":"ImageObject","@id":"https:\/\/secure.gravatar.com\/avatar\/c9645c498c9701c88b89b8537773dd7c?s=96&d=mm&r=g","url":"https:\/\/secure.gravatar.com\/avatar\/c9645c498c9701c88b89b8537773dd7c?s=96&d=mm&r=g","height":96,"width":96}},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Enzyklop\u00e4die","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","@id":"https:\/\/wiki.edu.vn\/wiki4\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/08\/download.jpg","url":"https:\/\/wiki.edu.vn\/wiki4\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/08\/download.jpg","width":600,"height":60}},"image":{"@type":"ImageObject","@id":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/c\/ca\/East-magadhan-proto-languages.png\/220px-East-magadhan-proto-languages.png","url":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/c\/ca\/East-magadhan-proto-languages.png\/220px-East-magadhan-proto-languages.png","height":"124","width":"220"},"url":"https:\/\/wiki.edu.vn\/en\/wiki24\/assamese-language-wikipedia\/","about":["Wiki"],"wordCount":22817,"articleBody":"     (adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || []).push({});before-content-x4Indo-Aryan language spoken in Assam, India       (adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || []).push({});after-content-x4Assamese ([4]), also Axomiya ([\u0254x\u0254mija] \u0985\u09b8\u09ae\u09c0\u09af\u09bc\u09be),[5] is an Indo-Aryan language spoken mainly in the north-eastern Indian state of Assam, where it is an official language, and it serves as a lingua franca of the wider region.[6] The easternmost Indo-Iranian language, it has over 15 million speakers according to Ethnologue.[1]Nefamese, an Assamese-based pidgin, is used in Arunachal Pradesh, and Nagamese, an Assamese-based Creole language,[7] is widely used in Nagaland. The Kamtapuri language of Rangpur division of Bangladesh and the Cooch Behar and Jalpaiguri districts of India are linguistically closer to Assamese, though the speakers identify with the Bengali culture and the literary language.[8] In the past, it was the court language of the Ahom kingdom from the 17th century.[9]Along with other Eastern Indo-Aryan languages, Assamese evolved at least before the 7th century CE[10] from the middle Indo-Aryan Magadhi Prakrit.[11] Its sister languages include Angika, Bengali, Bishnupriya Manipuri, Chakma, Chittagonian, Hajong, Rajbangsi, Maithili, Rohingya and Sylheti. It is written in the Assamese alphabet, an abugida system, from left to right, with many typographic ligatures.       (adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || []).push({});after-content-x4Table of ContentsHistory[edit]Magadhan and Gauda-Kamarupa stages[edit]Early Assamese[edit]Middle Assamese[edit]Modern Assamese[edit]Standardisation[edit]Geographical distribution[edit]Official status[edit]Phonology[edit]Consonant clusters[edit]Alveolar stops[edit]Voiceless velar fricative[edit]Velar nasal[edit]Vowel inventory[edit]Vowel harmony[edit]Writing system[edit]Sample text[edit]Schwa deletion[edit]Morphology and grammar[edit]Negation process[edit]Classifiers[edit]Nominalization[edit]Grammatical cases[edit]Pronouns[edit]Tense[edit]Relationship suffixes[edit]Dialects[edit]Regional dialects[edit]Samples[edit]Non-regional dialects[edit]Literature[edit]See also[edit]References[edit]External links[edit]History[edit]  The proto-languages of the eastern Magadhan languages. Kamarupi Prakrit corresponds to ?proto-Kamarupa here, a hitherto un-reconstructed proto-language. proto-Kamata began to innovate unique features in the period 1250-1550 CE.[12]         (adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || []).push({});after-content-x4Silver coin issued during the reign of Rudra Singha in Sanskrit with Assamese letters.Assamese originated in Old Indo-Aryan dialects, though the exact nature of its origin and growth is not clear yet.[13] It is generally believed that Assamese and the Kamatapuri lects derive from the Kamarupi dialect of Eastern Magadhi Prakrit[11] though some authors contest a close connection of Assamese with Magadhi Prakrit.[14][15] The Indo-Aryan, which appeared in the 4th-5th century in Assam,[16] was probably spoken in the new settlements of Kamarupa\u2014in urban centers and along the Brahmaputra river\u2014surrounded by Tibeto-Burman and Austroasiatic communities.[17] Kakati’s (1941) assertion that Assamese has an Austroasiatic substrate is generally accepted \u2013 which suggests that when the Indo-Aryan centers formed in the 4th-5th centuries CE, there were substantial Austroasiatic speakers that later accepted the Indo-Aryan vernacular.[16] Based on the 7th-century Chinese traveler Xuanzang’s observations, Chatterji (1926) suggests that the Indo-Aryan vernacular differentiated itself in Kamarupa before it did in Bengal,[18] and that these differences could be attributed to non-Indo-Aryan speakers adopting the language.[19][20] The newly differentiated vernacular, from which Assamese eventually emerged, is evident in the Prakritisms present in the Sanskrit of the Kamarupa inscriptions.[22]Magadhan and Gauda-Kamarupa stages[edit]The earliest forms of Assamese in literature are found in the 9th-century Buddhist verses called Charyapada[24] the language of which bear affinities with Assamese (as well as Bengali and Odia) and which belongs to a period when the Prakrit was at the cusp of differentiating into regional languages.[25] The spirit and expressiveness of the Charyadas are today found in the folk songs called Deh-Bicarar Git.[26]In the 12th-14th century works of Ramai Pundit (Sunya Puran), Boru Chandidas (Krishna Kirtan), Sukur Mamud (Gopichandrar Gan), Durllava Mullik (Gobindachandrar Git) and Bhavani Das (Mainamatir Gan)[27] Assamese grammatical peculiarities coexist with features from Bengali language.[28][29] Though the Gauda-Kamarupa stage is generally accepted and partially supported by recent linguistic research, it has not been fully reconstructed.[30]Early Assamese[edit]A distinctly Assamese literary form appeared first in the 13th-century in the courts of the Kamata kingdom when Hema Sarasvati composed the poem Prahr\u0101da Carita.[31] In the 14th-century, Madhava Kandali translated the Ramayana into Assamese (Saptakanda Ramayana) in the court of Mahamanikya, a Kachari king from central Assam. Though the Assamese idiom in these works is fully individualised, some archaic forms and conjunctive particles too are found.[32][33] This period corresponds to the common stage of proto-Kamta and early Assamese.[34]The emergence of Sankardev’s Ekasarana Dharma in the 15th-century triggered a revival in language and literature.[35]  Sankardev produced many translated works and created new literary forms\u2014Borgeets (songs), Ankia Naat (one-act plays)\u2014infusing them with Brajavali idioms; and these were sustained by his followers Madhavdev and others in the 15th and subsequent centuries. In these writings the 13th\/14th-century archaic forms are no longer found. Sankardev pioneered a prose-style of writing in the Ankia Naat. This was further developed by Bhattadeva who translated the Bhagavata Purana and Bhagavad Gita into Assamese prose.  Bhattadev’s prose was classical and restrained, with a high usage of Sanskrit forms and expressions in an Assamese syntax; and though subsequent authors tried to follow this style, it soon fell into disuse.[32] In this writing the first person future tense ending -m (korim: “will do”; kham: “will eat”) is seen for the first time.[36]Middle Assamese[edit]The language moved to the court of the Ahom kingdom in the seventeenth century,[9] where it became the state language.  In parallel, the proselytising Ekasarana dharma converted many Bodo-Kachari peoples and there emerged many new Assamese speakers who were speakers of Tibeto-Burman languages.  This period saw the emergence of different styles of secular prose in medicine, astrology, arithmetic, dance, music, besides religious biographies and the archaic prose of magical charms.[32]Most importantly this was also when Assamese developed a standardized prose in the Buranjis\u2014documents related to the Ahom state dealing with diplomatic writings, administrative records and general history.[32] The language of the Buranjis is nearly modern with some minor differences in grammar and with a pre-modern orthography. The Assamese plural suffixes (-bor, -hat) and the conjunctive participles (-gai: dharile-gai; -hi: pale-hi, baril-hi) become well established.[37] The Buranjis, dealing with statecraft, was also the vehicle by which Arabic and Persian elements crept into the language in abundance.[32]  Due to the influence of the Ahom state the speech in eastern Assam took a homogeneous and standard form.[38] The general schwa deletion that occurs in the final position of words came into use in this period.Modern Assamese[edit]The modern period of Assamese begins with printing\u2014the publication of the Assamese Bible in 1813 from the Serampore Mission Press.  But after the British East India Company (EIC) removed the Burmese in 1826 and took complete administrative control of Assam in 1836, it filled administrative positions with people from Bengal, and introduced Bengali language in its offices, schools and courts.[39] The EIC had earlier promoted the development of Bengali to replace Persian, the language of administration in Mughal India,[40] and maintained that Assamese was a dialect of Bengali.[41]Amidst this loss of status the American Baptist Mission (ABM) established a press in Sibsagar in 1846 leading to publications of an Assamese  periodical (Orunodoi), the first Assamese grammar by Nathan Brown (1846), and the first Assamese-English dictionary by Miles Bronson (1863).[37] The ABM argued strongly with the EIC officials in an intense debate in the 1850s to reinstate Assamese.[42] Among the local personalities Anandaram Dhekial Phukan drew up an extensive catalog of medieval Assamese literature (among other works) and pioneered the effort among the natives to reinstate Assamese in Assam.[43] Though this effort was not immediately successful the administration eventually declared Assamese the official vernacular in 1873 on the eve of Assam becoming a Chief Commissioner’s Province in 1874.[44]Standardisation[edit]In the extant medieval Assamese manuscripts the orthography was not uniform. The ABM had evolved a phonemic orthography based on a contracted set of characters.[45]  Working independently Hemchandra Barua provided an etymological orthography and his etymological dictionary, Hemkosh, was published posthumously.  He also provided a Sanskritised approach to the language in his Oxomiya Bhaxar Byakoron (“Grammar of the Assamese Language”) (1859, 1873).[46] Barua’s approach was adopted by the Oxomiya Bhaxa Unnati Xadhini Xobha (1888, “Assamese Language Development Society”) that emerged in Kolkata among Assamese students led by Lakshminath Bezbaroa. The Society published a periodical Jonaki and the period of its publication, Jonaki era, saw spirited negotiations on language standardization.[47] What emerged at the end of those negotiations was a standard close to the language of the Buranjis with the Sanskritised orthography of Hemchandra Barua.[48]As the political and commercial center moved to Guwahati in the mid-twentieth century, of which Dispur the capital of Assam is a suburb and which is situated at the border between the western and central dialect speaking regions, standard Assamese used in media and communications today is a neutral blend of the eastern variety without its distinctive features.[49] This core is further embellished with Goalpariya and Kamrupi idioms and forms.[50]Geographical distribution[edit]Assamese is native to Assam. It is also spoken in states of Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya and Nagaland. The Assamese script can be found in of present-day Burma. The Pashupatinath Temple in Nepal also has inscriptions in Assamese showing its influence in the past.There is a significant Assamese-speaking diaspora worldwide.[51][52][53][54]Official status[edit]Assamese is the official language of Assam, and one of the 22 official languages recognised by the Republic of India. The Assam Secretariat functions in Assamese.[55]Phonology[edit]The Assamese phonemic inventory consists of eight vowels, ten diphthongs, and twenty-three consonants (including two semivowels).[56]Consonants[58]LabialAlveolarDorsalGlottalNasalm \u27e8m, \u09ae\u27e9n \u27e8n, \u09a8\/\u09a3\u27e9\u014b \u27e8ng, \u0999\/\u0982\u27e9Stopvoicelessp \u27e8p, \u09aa\u27e9t \u27e8t, \u09a4\/\u099f\u27e9k \u27e8k, \u0995\u27e9aspiratedp\u02b0 \u27e8ph, \u09ab\u27e9t\u02b0 \u27e8th, \u09a5\/\u09a0\u27e9k\u02b0 \u27e8kh, \u0996\u27e9voicedb \u27e8b, \u09ac\u27e9d \u27e8d, \u09a6\/\u09a1\u27e9\u0261 \u27e8g, \u0997\u27e9murmuredb\u02b1 \u27e8bh, \u09ad\u27e9d\u02b1 \u27e8dh, \u09a7\/\u09a2\u27e9\u0261\u02b1 \u27e8gh, \u0998\u27e9Fricativevoicelesss \u27e8s, \u099a\/\u099b\u27e9x \u27e8x, \u09b6\/\u09b7\/\u09b8\u27e9h \u27e8h, \u09b9\u27e9voicedz \u27e8j, \u099c\/\u099d\/\u09af\u27e9Approximantcentralw \u27e8w, \u09f1\u27e9\u0279 \u27e8r, \u09f0\u27e9j \u27e8y, \u09af\u09bc\/\u09cd\u09af (\u09af)\u27e9laterall \u27e8l, \u09b2\u27e9Consonant clusters[edit]Alveolar stops[edit]The Assamese phoneme inventory is unique in the group of Indo-Aryan languages as it lacks a dental-retroflex distinction among the coronal stops as well as the lack of postalveolar affricates and fricatives.[59] Historically, the dental and retroflex series merged into alveolar stops. This makes Assamese resemble non-Indic languages of Northeast India (such as Austroasiatic and Sino-Tibetan languages). The only other language to have fronted retroflex stops into alveolars is the closely related group of eastern dialects of Bengali (although a contrast with dental stops remains in those dialects). Note that \/r\/ is normally realised as [\u0279] or as a retroflex approximant.Voiceless velar fricative[edit]Assamese is unusual among Eastern Indo-Aryan languages for the presence of the \/x\/ (it varies between velar ([x]) and a uvular ([\u03c7]) pronunciations, depending on the speaker and speech register), due historically to the MIA sibilants’ lenition to \/x\/ (initially) and \/h\/ (non-initially).[61] The use of the voiceless velar fricative is heavy in the eastern Assamese dialects and decreases progressively to the west\u2014from Kamrupi[62] to eastern Goalparia, and disappears completely in western Goalpariya.[63][64] The change of \/s\/ to \/h\/ and then to \/x\/ has been attributed to Tibeto-Burman influence by Dr. Chatterjee.[65]Velar nasal[edit]Assamese, Odia, and Bengali, in contrast to other Indo-Aryan languages, use the velar nasal (the English ng in sing) extensively. In many languages, while the velar nasal is commonly restricted to preceding velar sounds, in Assamese it can occur intervocalically.[56] This is another feature it shares with other languages of Northeast India, though in Assamese the velar nasal never occurs word-initially.Vowel inventory[edit]Eastern Indic languages like Assamese, Bengali, Sylheti, and Odia do not have a vowel length distinction, but have a wide set of back rounded vowels. In the case of Assamese, there are four back rounded vowels that contrast phonemically, as demonstrated by the minimal set: \u0995\u09b2\u09be kola [k\u0254la] (‘deaf’), \u0995’\u09b2\u09be k\u00f3la [kola] (‘black’), \u0995\u09cb\u09b2\u09be kwla [k\u028ala] (‘lap’), and \u0995\u09c1\u09b2\u09be kula [kula] (‘winnowing fan’).  The near-close near-back rounded vowel \/\u028a\/ is unique in this branch of the language family. But in lower Assam, \u0993 is pronounced same as \u0985’ (\u00f3). \u0995\u09cb\u09b2\u09be kwla [k\u00f3la] \u09ae\u09cb\u09f0 mwr [m\u00f3r]Vowel harmony[edit]Assamese has vowel harmony. The vowels [i] and [u] cause the preceding mid vowels and the high back vowels to change to [e] and [o] and [u] respectively. Assamese is one of the few languages spoken in India which exhibit a systematic process of vowel harmony.[67][68]Writing system[edit]  Modern Assamese uses the Assamese script. In medieval times, the script came in three varieties: Bamuniya, Garhgaya, and Kaitheli\/Lakhari, which developed from the Kamarupi script. It very closely resembles the Mithilakshar script of the Maithili language, as well as the Bengali script.[69] There is a strong literary tradition from early times.  Examples can be seen in edicts, land grants and copper plates of medieval kings.  Assam had its own manuscript writing system on the bark of the saanchi tree in which religious texts and chronicles were written, as opposed to the pan-Indian system of Palm leaf manuscript writing.  The present-day spellings in Assamese are not necessarily phonetic. Hemkosh (\u09b9\u09c7\u09ae\u0995\u09cb\u09b7 [\u0266\u025bmk\u028ax]), the second Assamese dictionary, introduced spellings based on Sanskrit, which are now the standard.In the early 1970s, it was agreed upon that the Roman script was to be the standard writing system for Nagamese Creole.[3]Sample text[edit]The following is a sample text in Assamese of Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights:Assamese in Assamese alphabet\u09e7\u09ae \u0985\u09a8\u09c1\u099a\u09cd\u099b\u09c7\u09a6: \u099c\u09a8\u09cd\u09ae\u0997\u09a4\u09ad\u09be\u09f1\u09c7 \u09b8\u0995\u09b2\u09cb \u09ae\u09be\u09a8\u09c1\u09b9 \u09ae\u09f0\u09cd\u09af\u09cd\u09af\u09a6\u09be \u0986\u09f0\u09c1 \u0985\u09a7\u09bf\u0995\u09be\u09f0\u09a4 \u09b8\u09ae\u09be\u09a8 \u0986\u09f0\u09c1 \u09b8\u09cd\u09ac\u09a4\u09a8\u09cd\u09a4\u09cd\u09f0\u0964 \u09a4\u09c7\u0993\u0981\u09b2\u09cb\u0995\u09f0 \u09ac\u09bf\u09ac\u09c7\u0995 \u0986\u099b\u09c7, \u09ac\u09c1\u09a6\u09cd\u09a7\u09bf \u0986\u099b\u09c7\u0964 \u09a4\u09c7\u0993\u0981\u09b2\u09cb\u0995\u09c7 \u09aa\u09cd\u09f0\u09a4\u09cd\u09af\u09c7\u0995\u09c7 \u09aa\u09cd\u09f0\u09a4\u09cd\u09af\u09c7\u0995\u0995 \u09ad\u09cd\u09f0\u09be\u09a4\u09c3\u09ad\u09be\u09f1\u09c7 \u09ac\u09cd\u09af\u09f1\u09b9\u09be\u09f0 \u0995\u09f0\u09be \u0989\u099a\u09bf\u09a4\u0964[70]Assamese in WRA RomanisationPr\u00f4th\u00f4m \u00f4nuss\u00ead: Z\u00f4nm\u00f4g\u00f4t\u00f4bhaw\u00ea x\u00f4k\u00f4l\u00fb manuh m\u00f4rjy\u00f4da aru \u00f4dhikar\u00f4t x\u00f4man aru s\u00f4t\u00f4ntr\u00f4. T\u00ea\u00fb\u0303l\u00fbk\u00f4r bib\u00eak as\u00ea, buddhi as\u00ea. T\u00ea\u00fb\u0303l\u00fbk\u00ea pr\u00f4itt\u00eak\u00ea pr\u00f4itt\u00eak\u00f4k bhratribhaw\u00ea by\u00f4w\u00f4har k\u00f4ra usit.Assamese in SRA RomanisationProthom onussed: Jonmogotobhabe xokol\u00fc manuh moirjjoda aru odhikarot xoman aru sotontro. Te\u00fc\u0303l\u00fckor bibek ase, buddhi ase. Te\u00fc\u0303l\u00fcke proitteke proittekok bhratribhawe bebohar kora usit.Assamese in SRA2 RomanisationProthom onussed: Jonmogotovawe xokolu’ manuh morjjoda aru odhikarot xoman aru sotontro. Teulu’kor bibek ase, buddhi ase. Teulu’ke proitteke proittekok vratrivawe bewohar kora usit.Assamese in CCRA RomanisationProthom onussed: Jonmogotobhawe xokolu manuh morjyoda aru odhikarot xoman aru sotontro. Teulukor bibek ase, buddhi ase. Teuluke proitteke proittekok bhratribhawe byowohar kora usit.Assamese in IAST RomanisationPrathama anucch\u0113da: Janmagatabh\u0101ve sakalo m\u0101nuha maryad\u0101 \u0101ru adhik\u0101rata sam\u0101na \u0101ru svatantra. T\u0113\u00f5lokara bib\u0113ka \u0101ch\u0113, buddhi \u0101ch\u0113. T\u0113\u00f5lok\u0113 praty\u0113k\u0113 praty\u0113kaka bhr\u0101tribh\u0101v\u0113 byavah\u0101ra kar\u0101 ucita.Assamese in the International Phonetic Alphabet\/p\u0279\u0254t\u02b0\u0254m \u0254nus\u02d0\u025bd | z\u0254nm\u0254\u0261\u0254t\u0254b\u02b0ab\u025b x\u0254k\u0254l\u028a manu\u02b1 m\u0254\u026az\u02d0\u0254da a\u0279u \u0254d\u02b0ika\u0279\u0254t x\u0254man a\u0279u s\u0254t\u0254nt\u0279\u0254 || t\u025b\u028a\u0303l\u028ak\u0254\u0279 bib\u025bk as\u025b bud\u02d0\u02b0i as\u025b || t\u025b\u028a\u0303l\u028ak\u025b p\u0279\u0254\u026at\u02d0\u025bk\u025b p\u0279\u0254\u026at\u02d0\u025bk\u0254k b\u02b0\u0279at\u0279ib\u02b0ab\u025b b\u025bb\u0254\u0266a\u0279 k\u0254\u0279a usit\/Gloss1st Article: Congenitally all human dignity and right-in equal and free. their conscience exists, intellect exists. They everyone everyone-to brotherly behaviour to-do should.TranslationArticle 1: All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience. Therefore, they should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.Schwa deletion[edit]The inherent vowel in the Assamese alphabet, represented by \/\u0254\/, is generally deleted in the final position unless it is (1) \/w\/ (\u09f1); or (2) \/y\/ (\u09af\u09bc) after higher vowels like \/i\/ (\u0987) or \/u\/ (\u0989),[71] though it was not deleted in Early Assamese.  The inherent vowel is never deleted initially.Morphology and grammar[edit]The Assamese language has the following characteristic morphological features:Gender and number are not grammatically marked.There is a lexical distinction of gender in the third person pronoun.Transitive verbs are distinguished from intransitive.The agentive case is overtly marked as distinct from the accusative.Kinship nouns are inflected for personal pronominal possession.Adverbs can be derived from the verb roots.A passive construction may be employed idiomatically.Negation process[edit]Verbs in Assamese are negated by adding \/n\/ before the verb, with \/n\/ picking up the initial vowel of the verb. For example:\/na la\u0261\u025b\/ ‘do(es) not want’ (1st, 2nd and 3rd persons)\/ni lik\u02b0\u028a\u0303\/ ‘will not write’ (1st person)\/nukut\u028a\u0303\/ ‘will not nibble’ (1st person)\/n\u025bl\u025bk\u02b0\u025b\/ ‘does not count’ (3rd person)\/n\u0254k\u0254\u0279\u0254\/ ‘do not do’ (2nd person)Classifiers[edit]Assamese has a large collection of classifiers, which are used extensively for different kinds of objects, acquired from the Sino-Tibetan languages. A few examples of the most extensive and elaborate use of classifiers are given below:“z\u0254n” is used to signify a person, male with some amount of respectE.g., manuh-z\u0254n \u2013 “the man”“z\u0254ni” (female) is used after a noun or pronoun to indicate human beingsE.g., manuh-z\u0254ni \u2013 “the woman”“z\u0254ni” is also used to express the non-human feminineE.g., s\u0254\u0279ai z\u0254ni \u2013  “the bird”, p\u0254\u0279uwa-z\u0254ni \u2013 “the ant”“z\u0254na” and “g\u0254\u0279aki” are used to express high respect for both man and womanE.g., k\u0254bi-z\u0254na \u2013  “the poet”, g\u028axa\u026a-z\u0254na \u2013  “the goddess”, rastrapati-g\u0254\u0279aki \u2013 “the president”, ti\u0279\u028ata-g\u0254\u0279aki \u2013 “the woman”“t\u028a” has three forms: t\u028a, ta, ti(a) t\u028a: is used to specify something, although the case of someone, e.g., lo\u0279a-t\u028a \u2013 “the particular boy”, is impolite(b) ta: is used only after numerals, e.g., \u025bta, duta, tinita \u2013 “one, two, three”(c) ti: is the diminutive form, e.g., kesua-ti \u2013  “the infant, besides expressing more affection or attachment to“k\u0254sa“, “m\u0254t\u02b0a” and “ta\u0279” are used for things in bunchesE.g., sabi-k\u0254sa – “the bunch of key”, saul-m\u0254t\u02b0a \u2013 “a handful of rice”, suli-ta\u0279i or suli k\u0254sa \u2013 “the bunch of hair”dal, dali, are used after nouns to indicate something long but round and solidE.g., b\u00e3\u02b1-dal – “the bamboo”, kat\u02b0-dal \u2013 “the piece of wood”, b\u00e3\u02b1-dali \u2013 “the piece of bamboo”Assamese ClassifiersClassifierReferentExamples\/z\u0254n\/males (adult)manuh-z\u0254n (the man – honorific)\/z\u0254ni\/females (women as well as animals)manuh-z\u0254ni (the woman), s\u0254rai-z\u0254ni (the bird)\/z\u0254na\/honorifickobi-z\u0254na (the poet), g\u028axai-z\u0254na (the god\/goddess)\/\u0261\u0254\u0279aki\/males and females (honorific)manuh-\u0261\u0254\u0279aki (the woman), rastr\u0254p\u0254ti-g\u0254\u0279aki (the president)\/t\u028a\/inanimate objects or males of animals and men (impolite)manuh-t\u028a (the man – diminutive), g\u0254\u0279u-t\u028a (the cow)\/ti\/inanimate objects or infantskesua-ti (the baby)\/ta\/for counting numeralse-ta (count one), du-ta (count two)\/k\u02b0\u0254n\/flat square or rectangular objects, big or small, long or short\/k\u02b0\u0254ni\/terrain like rivers and mountains\/t\u02b0upi\/small objects\/zak\/group of people, cattle; also for rain; cyclone\/sati\/breeze\/pat\/objects that are thin, flat, wide or narrow.\/pa\u0266i\/flowers\/s\u0254ta\/objects that are solid\/k\u0254sa\/mass nouns\/m\u0254t\u02b0a\/bundles of objects\/mut\u02b0i\/smaller bundles of objects\/ta\u0279\/broomlike objects\/\u0261\u0254s\/wick-like objects\/\u0261\u0254si\/with earthen lamp or old style kerosene lamp used in Assam\/z\u028apa\/objects like trees and shrubs\/k\u02b0ila\/paper and leaf-like objects\/k\u02b0ini\/uncountable mass nouns and pronouns\/dal\/inanimate flexible\/stiff or oblong objects; humans (pejorative)In Assamese, classifiers are generally used in the numeral + classifier + noun (e.g. \/ez\u0254n manuh\/ ejon manuh ‘one man’) or the noun + numeral + classifier (e.g. \/manuh ez\u0254n\/ manuh ejon ‘one man’) forms.Nominalization[edit]Most verbs can be converted into nouns by the addition of the suffix \/\u0254n\/. For example, \/k\u02b0a\/ (‘to eat’) can be converted to \/k\u02b0a\u0254n\/ khaon (‘good eating’).Grammatical cases[edit]Assamese has 8 grammatical cases:CasesSuffixExampleAbsolutivenone\u09ac\u09be\u09f0\u09c0\u09a4baritgarden-LOC\u0997\u09f0\u09c1g\u00f3ru-cattle-ABS\u09b8\u09cb\u09ae\u09be\u09b2\u0964xwmal.entered\u09ac\u09be\u09f0\u09c0\u09a4 \u0997\u09f0\u09c1 \u09b8\u09cb\u09ae\u09be\u09b2\u0964barit g\u00f3ru- xwmal.garden-LOC cattle-ABS enteredCattles entered into the garden.Ergative\u0997\u09f0\u09c1\u09f1\u09c7g\u00f3ru-ecattle-ERG\u0998\u09be\u0981\u09b9gh\u00e3hgrass-ACC\u0996\u09be\u09af\u09bc\u0964kha-e.eat-3.HAB.PRES\u0997\u09f0\u09c1\u09f1\u09c7 \u0998\u09be\u0981\u09b9 \u0996\u09be\u09af\u09bc\u0964g\u00f3ru-e gh\u00e3h kha-e.cattle-ERG grass-ACC eat-3.HAB.PRESCattles eat grass.Note: The personal pronouns without a plural or other suffix are not marked.Accusative\u09b6\u09bf\u09af\u09bc\u09be\u09b2\u099f\u09cb\u09f1\u09c7xial-tw-ejackal-the-ERG\u09b6\u09b9\u09be\u099f\u09cb\u0995xoha-tw-khare-the-ACC\u0986\u099b\u09c7\u0964ase.exist-3.PRES.CONT\u09b6\u09bf\u09af\u09bc\u09be\u09b2\u099f\u09cb\u09f1\u09c7 \u09b6\u09b9\u09be\u099f\u09cb\u0995 \u0996\u09c7\u09a6\u09bf \u0986\u099b\u09c7\u0964xial-tw-e xoha-tw-k khedi ase.jackal-the-ERG hare-the-ACC chasing exist-3.PRES.CONTThe jackal is chasing the hare.\u09a4\u09c7\u0993\u0981\u09b2\u09cb\u0995\u09c7tewlwk-ethey\u099a\u09cb\u09f0\u099f\u09cbs\u00fcr-tw-thief-the-ACC\u09aa\u09c1\u09b2\u09bf\u099a\u0995pulis-okpolice-ACC\u0997\u09a4\u09be\u09b2\u09c7\u0964gotale.handover-REC–3\u09a4\u09c7\u0993\u0981\u09b2\u09cb\u0995\u09c7 \u099a\u09cb\u09f0\u099f\u09cb \u09aa\u09c1\u09b2\u09bf\u099a\u0995 \u0997\u09a4\u09be\u09b2\u09c7\u0964tewlwk-e s\u00fcr-tw- pulis-ok gotale.they thief-the-ACC police-ACC handover-REC-3They handed over the thief to the police.Genitive\u09a4\u09be\u0987\u09f0 \u0998\u09f0tai-r ghorshe-GEN houseHer houseDative-(\u0985)\u09b2\u09c8 [dialectal: -(\u0985)\u09b2\u09c7]; -(\u0985)\u0995-(o)l\u00f3i [dialectal: -(o)le]; -(o)k\u09aa\u09a2\u09bc\u09be\u09b6\u09be\u09b2\u09bf\u09b2\u09c8porhaxali-l\u00f3ischool-DAT\u0986\u099b\u09c7\u0964ase.exist-3.PRES.CONT\u09b8\u09bf \u09aa\u09a2\u09bc\u09be\u09b6\u09be\u09b2\u09bf\u09b2\u09c8 \u0997\u09c8 \u0986\u099b\u09c7\u0964xi porhaxali-l\u00f3i g\u00f3i ase.he school-DAT going exist-3.PRES.CONTHe is going to (the) school.\u09ac\u09be\u0995ba-kelder sister-DAT\u099a\u09be\u09ac\u09bf\u099f\u09cbsabi-tw-key-the-ACC\u09a6\u09bf\u09af\u09bc\u09be\u0964dia.give-FAM.IMP\u09ac\u09be\u0995 \u099a\u09be\u09ac\u09bf\u099f\u09cb \u09a6\u09bf\u09af\u09bc\u09be\u0964ba-k sabi-tw- dia.{elder sister}-DAT key-the-ACC give-FAM.IMPGive elder sister the key.Terminative-(\u0985)\u09b2\u09c8\u0995\u09c7-(o)l\u00f3i-(\u0985)\u09b2\u09c7\u0995\u09c7]-(o)leke]-(\u0985)\u09b2\u09c8\u0995\u09c7 [dialectal: -(\u0985)\u09b2\u09c7\u0995\u09c7]-(o)l\u00f3i [dialectal: -(o)leke]\u09a8\u09b9\u09be\u09b2\u09c8\u0995\u09c7n-oha-l\u00f3ikenot-coming-TERM\u0995\u02bc\u09a4\u09cbk\u00f3t-wwhere-even\u09a8\u09c7\u09af\u09be\u09ac\u09be\u0964ne-ja-b-a.not-go-future-3\u09ae\u0987 \u09a8\u09b9\u09be\u09b2\u09c8\u0995\u09c7 \u0995\u02bc\u09a4\u09cb \u09a8\u09c7\u09af\u09be\u09ac\u09be\u0964moi n-oha-l\u00f3ike k\u00f3t-w ne-ja-b-a.I not-coming-TERM where-even not-go-future-3Don’t go anywhere until I don’t come.\u09ed\u09b2\u09c8\u0995\u09c77-ol\u00f3ikeseven-TERM\u09e7\u09f0 \u09aa\u09f0\u09be \u09ed\u09b2\u09c8\u0995\u09c71-or pora 7-ol\u00f3ikeone-GEN from seven-TERMFrom 1 up to 7Instrumental-(\u098f)\u09f0\u09c7 [dialectal: -(\u098f)\u09a6\u09bf]-(e)re [dialectical: -(e)di]\u0995\u09b2\u09ae\u09c7\u09f0\u09c7kolom-erepen-INS\u09b2\u09bf\u0996\u09bf\u099b\u09bf\u09b2\u09be\u0964likhisila.write-2.DP\u0995\u09b2\u09ae\u09c7\u09f0\u09c7 \u09b2\u09bf\u0996\u09bf\u099b\u09bf\u09b2\u09be\u0964kolom-ere likhisila.pen-INS write-2.DPYou wrote with (a) pen.Locative-(\u0985)\u09a4 [sometimes: -\u098f]-(o)t [sometimes: -e]\u09ac\u09b9\u09c0\u0996\u09a8\u09a4b\u00f3hi-khon-otnotebook-the-LOC\u09b2\u09bf\u0996\u09bf\u099b\u09c7\u0964likhise.write-PRES.PERF.3\u09b8\u09bf \u09ac\u09b9\u09c0\u0996\u09a8\u09a4 \u09b2\u09bf\u0996\u09bf\u099b\u09c7\u0964xi b\u00f3hi-khon-ot likhise.he notebook-the-LOC write-PRES.PERF.3He has written on the notebook.\u0986\u0987\u09a4\u09beaitagrandmother\u09ae\u0999\u09b2\u09ac\u09be\u09f0\u09c7mo\u014bolbar-eTuesday-LOC\u0986\u09b9\u09bf\u099b\u09bf\u09b2\u0964ahisil.come-DP–3\u0986\u0987\u09a4\u09be \u09ae\u0999\u09b2\u09ac\u09be\u09f0\u09c7 \u0986\u09b9\u09bf\u099b\u09bf\u09b2\u0964aita mo\u014bolbar-e ahisil.grandmother Tuesday-LOC come-DP-3Grandmother came on Tuesday.Pronouns[edit]NumberPersonGenderPronounsAbsolutiveErgativeAccusativeDativeGenitiveLocativeDativeSingular1stm\/f (I)moimwkmwrmwtmwl\u00f3i2ndm\/f (you)toi \u1d5btumi \u1da0apuni \u1d56twktwmakapwnaktwrtwmarapwnartwttwmatapwnattwloitwmal\u00f3iapwnaloi3rdm (he)n (it, that)i * xi **iaktakiartariattatialoitaloif (she)ei *tai **eiktaikeirtaireittaiteil\u00f3itail\u00f3in & p (he\/she)ew\/ekhet(-e \u1d49) * te\u00fc\/tekhet(-e \u1d49) **ewk\/ekhetoktewk\/tekhetokewr\/ekhetortewr\/tekhetorewt\/ekhetottewt\/tekhetotewloi\/ekhet\u00f3l\u00f3itewl\u00f3i\/tekhet\u00f3l\u00f3iPlural1stm\/f (we)amiamakamaramatamal\u00f3i2ndm\/f (you)tohot(-e \u1d49) \u1d5btwmalwk(-e \u1d49) \u1da0apwnalwk(-e \u1d49) \u1d56toh\u00f5tok twmalwkok apwnalwkoktoh\u00f5tor twmalwkor apwnalwkortoh\u00f5tot twmalwkot apwnalwkottoh\u00f5tol\u00f3i twmalwkol\u00f3i apwnalwkol\u00f3i3rdm\/f (they)ih\u00f5t *ewlwk\/ekhetxokol(-e \u1d49) \u1d56 *xih\u00f5t **tewlwk\/tekhetxokol(-e \u1d49) \u1d56 **ih\u00f5tokxihot\u00f5kewlwkok\/ekhetxokoloktewlwkok\/tekhetxokolokih\u00f5torxihot\u00f5re\u00fclwkor\/ekhetxokolortewlwkor\/tekhetxokolorih\u00f5totxihot\u00f5tewlwkot\/ekhetxokolottewlwkot\/tekhetxokolotih\u00f5toloixihot\u00f5loiewlwkok\/ekhetxokololoitewlwkoloi\/tekhetxokololoin (these, those)eibwr(-e \u1d49) \u1d5b *eibilak(-e \u1d49) \u1da0 *eix\u00f3muh(-e \u1d49) \u1d56 *xeibwr(-e \u1d49) \u1d5b **xeibilak(-e \u1d49) \u1da0 **xeix\u00f3muh(-e) \u1d56 **eibwrokeibilakokeix\u00f3muhokxeibwrokxeibilakokxeix\u00f3muhokeibwroreibilakoreix\u00f3muhorxeibwrorxeibilakorxeix\u00f3muhoreibwroteibilakoteix\u00f3muhotxeibwrotxeibilakotxeix\u00f3muhoteibwrol\u00f3ieibilakol\u00f3ieix\u00f3muhol\u00f3ixeibwroloixeibilakole\u00f3xeix\u00f3muh\u00f3l\u00f3im=male, f=female, n=neuter., *=the person or object is near., **=the person or object is far., v =very familiar, inferior, f=familiar, p=polite, e=ergative form.Tense[edit]With consonant ending verb likh (write) and vowel ending verb kha (eat, drink, consume).StemLikh, KhaGerundLikha, khwaCausativeLikha, khuaConjugativeLikhi, Khai & KhaInfinitiveLikhib\u00f3, KhaboGoalLikhib\u00f3l\u00f3i, Khab\u00f3l\u00f3iTerminativeLikhib\u00f3l\u00f3ike, Khab\u00f3l\u00f3ikeAgentiveLikh\u00fcta np\/Likhwra mi\/Likhwri fi, Khawta np\/Khawra mi\/Khawri fiConverbLikhwte, KhawteProgressiveLikhwte likhwte, Khawte khawteReasonLikhat, KhwatLikhilot, KhalotConditionalLikhile, KhalePerfectiveLikhi, KhaiHabitualLikhi likhi, Khai khaiFor different types of verbs.TensePersontho “put”kha “consume”pi “drink”de “give”dhu “wash”kor “do”randh “cook”ah “come”+–+–+–+–+–+–+–+–Simple Present1st\u00a0per.thownothowkhawnakhaw ~ nekhawpiwnipiwdiwnidiwdhwnudhwkorwnokorwrandhwnarandhw ~ nerandhwahwnahw2nd\u00a0per.\u00a0inf.thwanothwakhwanakhwa ~ nekhwapiuanipiuadianidiadhuanudhuakoranokorarandhanarandha ~ nerandhaahanaha2nd\u00a0per.\u00a0pol.thwanwthwakhwanwkhwapiuanipiuadianidiadhwanwdhwakoranokorarandhanarandha ~ nerandhaahanaha2nd\u00a0per.\u00a0hon.\u00a0&\u00a03rd\u00a0per.thoenothoekhaenakhae ~ nekhaepienipiedienidiedhwenudhwekorenokorerandhenarandhe ~ nerandheahenahePresent continuous1st per.th\u00f3i aswthoi thoka naikhai aswkhai thoka naipi asupi thoka naidi aswdi thoka naidhui aswdhui thoka naikori aswk\u00f3ri thoka nairandhi aswrandhi thoka naiahi aswahi thoka nai2nd\u00a0per.\u00a0inf.thoi asokhai asopi asodi asodhui asokori asorandhi asoahi aso2nd\u00a0per.\u00a0pol.thoi asakhai asapi asadi asadhui asakori asarandhi asaahi asa2nd\u00a0per.\u00a0hon.\u00a0&\u00a03rd\u00a0per.thoi asekhai asepi asedi asedhui asekori aserandhi aseahi asePresent Perfect1st per.thoiswthwa naikhaiswkhwa naipiswpia naidiswdia naidhui aswdhwa naikoriswkora nairandhiswrondha naiahi aswoha nai2nd\u00a0per.\u00a0inf.th\u00f3is\u00f3khais\u00f3pis\u00f3dis\u00f3dhuis\u00f3k\u00f3ris\u00f3randhis\u00f3ahis\u00f32nd per. pol.thoisakhaisapisadisadhuisakorisarandhisaahisa2nd per. hon. & 3rd per.thoisekhaisepisedisedhuisekoriserandhiseahiseRecent Past1st per.th\u00f6lwnoth\u00f6lwkhalwnakhalw ~ nekhalwpilwnipilwdilwnidilwdhulwnudhulwkorilwnok\u00f3rilwrandhilwnarandhilw ~ nerandhilwahilwnahilw2nd per. inf.th\u00f6linoth\u00f6likhalinakhali ~ nekhalipilinipilidilinidilidhulinudhulik\u00f3rilin\u00f3k\u00f3rilirandhilinarandhili ~ nerandhiliahilwnahilw2nd per. pol.th\u00f6lanoth\u00f6lakhalanakhala ~ nekhalapilanipiladilanidiladhulanudhulak\u00f3rilan\u00f3k\u00f3rilarandhilanarandhila ~ nerandhilaahilanahila2nd\u00a0per.\u00a0hon.\u00a0&\u00a03rd\u00a0per.th\u00f6lenoth\u00f6lekhalenakhale ~ nekhalepilenipiledilenidiledhulenudhulek\u00f3rilen\u00f3k\u00f3rilerandhilenarandhile ~ nerandhileahile \/ ahiltrnahile \/ nahiltrDistant Past1st per.thoisilwnothoisilw ~ thwa nasilwkhaisilwnakhaisilw ~ nekhaisilw ~ khwa nasilwpisilwnipisilw ~ pia nasilwdisilwnidisilw ~ dia nasilwdhuisilwnudhuisilw ~ dh\u00fca nasilwk\u00f3risilwn\u00f3k\u00f3risilw ~ kora nasilwrandhisilwnarandhisilw ~ nerandhisilw ~ rondha nasilwahisilwnahisilw ~ oha nasilw2nd per. inf.thoisilinoth\u00f3isili ~ thwa nasilikhaisilinakhaisili ~ nekhaisili ~ khwa nasilipisilinipisili ~ pia nasilidisilinidisili ~ dia nasilidhuisilinudhuisili ~ dhwa nasilikorisilinokorisili ~ kora nasilirandhisilinarandhisili ~ nerandhisili ~ rondha nasiliahisilinahisili ~ oha nasili2nd per. pol.thoisilanoth\u00f3isila ~ thwa nasilakhaisilanakhaisila ~ nekhaisila ~ kh\u00fca nasilapisilanipisila ~ pia nasiladisilanidisila ~ dia nasiladhuisilanudhuisila ~ dhwa nasilakorisilanokorisila ~ kora nasilarandhisilanarandhisila ~ nerandhisila ~ rondha nasilaahisilanahisila ~ oha nasila2nd per. hon. & 3rd per.thoisilenothoisile ~ thwa nasilekhaisilenakhaisile ~ nekhaisile ~ khwa nasilepisilenipisile ~ pia nasiledisilenidisile ~ dia nasiledhuisilenudhuisile ~ dh\u00fca nasilekorisilenokorisile ~ kora nasilerandhisilenarandhisile ~ nerandhisile ~ rondha nasileahisilenahisile ~ oha nasilePast continuous1st per.thoi asilwthoi thoka nasilwkhai asilwkhai thoka nasilwpi asilwpi thoka nasilwdi asilwdi thoka nasilwdhui asilsdhui thoka nasilskori asilskori thoka nasilsrandhi asilsrandhi thoka nasilsahi asilsahi thoka nasils2nd per. inf.thoi asilithoi thoka nasilikhai asilikhai thoka nasilipi asilipi thoka nasilidi asilidi thoka nasilidhui asilidhui thoka nasilikori asilikori thoka nasilirandhi asilirandhi thoka nasiliahi asiliahi thoka nasili2nd per. pol.thoi asilathoi thoka nasilakhai asilakhai thoka nasilapi asilapi thoka nasiladi asiladi thoka nasiladhui asiladhui thoka nasilakori asilakori thoka nasilarandhi asilarandhi thoka nasilaahi asilaahi thoka nasila2nd per. hon. & 3rd per.thoi asil(e)thoi thoka nasil(e)khai asil(e)khai thoka nasil(e)pi asil(e)pi thoka nasil(e)di asil(e)di thoka nasil(e)dhui asil(e)dhui thoka nasil(e)kori asil(e)kori thoka nasil(e)randhi asil(e)randhi thoka nasil(e)ahi asil{e)ahi thoka nasil(e)Simple Future1st per.th\u00f6mnoth\u00f6mkhamnakham ~ nekhampimnipimdimnidimdhumnudhumkorimnokorimrandhimnarandhim ~ nerandhimahimnahim2nd per. inf.th\u00f6binoth\u00f6bikhabinakhabi ~ nekhabipibinipibidibinidibidhubinudhubikoribinokoribirandhibinarandhibi ~ nerandhibiahibinahibi2nd per. pol.th\u00f6banoth\u00f6bakhabanakhaba ~ nekhabapibanipibadibanidibadhubanudhubakoriban\u00f3k\u00f3ribarandhibanarandhiba ~ nerandhibaahibanahiba2nd\u00a0per.\u00a0hon.\u00a0&\u00a03rd\u00a0per.th\u00f6bonoth\u00f6bokhabonakhabo ~ nekhabopibonipibodibonidibodhubonudhubokoribonokoriborandhibonarandhibo ~ nerandhiboahibonahiboFuture continuous1st per.thoi thakimthoi nathakim\/nethakimkhai thakimkhai nathakim\/nethakimpi thakimpi nathakim\/nethakimdi thakimdi nathakim\/nethakimdhui thakimdhui nathakim\/nethakimkori thakimkori nathakim\/nethakimrandhi thakimrandhi nathakim\/nethakimahi thakimahi nathakim\/nethakim2nd per. inf.thoi thakibithoi nathakibi\/nethakibikhai thakibikhai nathakibi\/nethakibipi thakibipi nathakibi\/nethakibidi thakibidi nathakibi\/nethakibidhui thakibidhui nathakibi\/nethakibikori thakibikori nathakibi\/nethakibirandhi thakibirandhi nathakibi\/nethakibiahi thakibiahi nathakibi\/nethakibi2nd per. pol.thoi thakibathoi nathakiba\/nethakibakhai thakibakhai nathakiba\/nethakibapi thakibapi nathakiba\/nethakibadi thakibadi nathakiba\/nethakibadhui thakibadhui nathakiba\/nethakibakori thakibakori nathakiba\/nethakibarandhi thakibarandhi nathakiba\/nethakibaahi thakibaahi nathakiba\/nethakiba2nd\u00a0per.\u00a0hon.\u00a0&\u00a03rd\u00a0per.thoi thakibothoi nathakibo\/nethakibokhai thakibokhai nathakibo\/nethakibopi thakibopi nathakibo\/nethakibodi thakibodi nathakibo\/nethakibodhui thakibodhui nathakibo\/nethakibokori thakibokori nathakibo\/nethakiborandhi thakiborandhi nathakibo\/nethakiboahi thakiboahi nathakibo\/nethakiboThe negative forms are n + 1st vowel of the verb + the verb. Example: Moi porhw, Moi noporhw (I read, I do not read); Tumi khelila, Tumi nekhelila (You played, You didn’t play). For verbs that start with a vowel, just the n- is added, without vowel lengthening. In some dialects if the 1st vowel is a in a verb that starts with consonant, ne is used, like, Moi nakhaw (I don’t eat) is Moi nekha\u00fc. In past continuous the negative form is -i thoka nasil-. In future continuous it’s -i na(\/e)thaki-. In present continuous and present perfect, just -i thoka nai and -a nai’ respectively are used for all personal pronouns. Sometimes for plural pronouns, the -hok suffix is used, like korwhok (we do), ahilahok (you guys came).ContentRelationship suffixes[edit]PersonsSuffixExampleEnglish translation1st personnoneMwr\/Amar ma, bap, kokai, vai, ba, voniMy\/Our mother, father, elder-brother, younger-brother, elder-sister, younger-sister2nd person(very familiar; inferior)-(e)rTwr\/Toh\u00f5tor mar, baper, kokaier, vaier, bar, vonierYour\/Your(pl) mother, father, elder-brother, younger-brother, elder-sister, younger-sister2nd personfamiliar-(e)raTwmar\/Twmalwkor mara, bapera, kokaiera, vaiera, bara, vonieraYour\/Your(pl) mother, father, elder-brother, younger-brother, elder-sister, younger-sister2nd personformal;3rd person-(e)kApwnar\/Apwnalwkor\/Tar\/Tair\/Xihot\u00f5r\/Tewr mak, bapek, kokaiek, bhaiek, bak, voniekYour\/Your(pl)\/His\/Her\/Their\/His~Her(formal) mother, father, elder-brother, younger-brother, elder-sister, younger-sisterDialects[edit]  Regional dialects[edit]The language has quite a few regional variations. Banikanta Kakati identified two broad dialects which he named (1) Eastern and (2) Western dialects,[76] of which the eastern dialect is homogeneous, and prevalent to the east of Guwahati, and the western dialect is heterogeneous. However, recent linguistic studies have identified four dialect groups listed below from east to west:[56]Eastern group in and around the undivided Sivasagar district (Golaghat, Jorhat, Majuli, Charaideo and Sivasagar) and the former undivided Lakhimpur district (Dibrugarh, Tinsukia, Lakhimpur and Dhemaji. Standard Assamese is based on the Eastern group.Central group spoken in Nagaon, Sonitpur, Morigaon districts and adjoining areasKamrupi group in the Kamrup region: (Barpetia, Nalbariya, Palasbaria)Goalpariya group in the Goalpara region: (Ghulliya, Jharuwa, Caruwa)Samples[edit]Collected from the book, Assamese \u2013 Its formation and development.[77] The translations are of different versions of the English translations:English: A man had two sons. The younger son told his father, ‘I want my share of your estate now before you die.’ So his father agreed to divide his wealth between his sons. A few days later this younger son packed all his belongings and moved to a distant land, and there he wasted all his money in wild living. About the time his money ran out, a great famine swept over the land, and he began to starve. He persuaded a local farmer to hire him, and the man sent him into his fields to feed the pigs. The young man became so hungry that even the pods he was feeding the pigs looked good to him. But no one gave him anything.Eastern Assamese (Sibsagar): K\u00fcn\u00fc ejon manuhor duta putek asil, tare xorut\u00fce bapekok kole, “Oi b\u00fcpai! xompottir ji bhag moi pa\u00fc tak m\u00fck diok!” Tate te\u00fc te\u00fcr xompotti dui\u00fc putekor bhitorot bati dile. Olop dinor pasot xorutw puteke tar bhagot ji pale take loi dur dexoloi goi beisali kori gutei xompotti nax korile. Tar pasot xei dexot bor akal h\u00f3l. Tate xi dux paboloi dhorile. Tetia xi goi xei dexor ejon manuhor asroy lole, aru xei manuhe tak gahori soraboloi potharoloi pothai dile. Tate xi gahorir kh\u00fca ebidh gosor seire pet bhoraboloi bor hepah korile\u00fc tak k\u00fcne\u00fc ek\u00fc nidile.Central Assamese: Manuh ejonor duta putak asil. Tah\u00e3tor vitorot xoutw putake bapekok k\u00f3le,Central\/Kamrupi (Pati Darrang): Eta manhur duta putak asil, xehat\u00f6r xorutui bapak\u00f6k kolak, “He pite, xomp\u00f6ttir m\u00f6r bhag\u00f6t zikhini porei, take m\u00f6k di.” Tate te\u00f6 niz\u00f6r xomp\u00f6tti xehat\u00f6k bhagei dilak. Tar olop din\u00f6r pas\u00f6tei xe\u00f1 xoru putekt\u00fci xokol\u00f6ke g\u00f6tei loi k\u00f6mba dexok legi polei gel aru tate lompot kam\u00f6t g\u00f6tei urei dilak. Xi xokol\u00f6 bioe kora\u00f5te xe\u00f1 dex\u00f6t bor akal hol. Xi tate bor kosto paba dhollak. Teten xi aru xe\u00f1 dexor eta manhur asroe lolak. Xe\u00f1 mantui niz\u00f6r pothar\u00f6k legi tak bora saribak legi pothei dilak. Tate xi aru borai khawa ekbidh gas\u00f6r sei di pet bhorabak legi bor hepah kollak. Kintu kawei ek\u00f6 tak nedlak.Kamrupi (Palasbari): Kunba eta manhur duta putak asil. Ekdin xort\u00f6 putake bapiakok kola, “Bapa wa, apunar xomp\u00f6ttir moi bhag\u00f6t zeman kheni pam teman khini m\u00f6k dia.” Tethane bapiake niz\u00f6r xomp\u00f6tti du\u00f6 putakok bhage dila. Keidinman pas\u00f6t x\u00f6rt\u00f6 putake tar bhagt\u00f6 loi kunba akhan durher dekhok gel, aru tate gundami k\u00f6ri tar g\u00f6tei makha xomp\u00f6tti nohoa koilla. Tar pas\u00f6t xiai dekhot mosto akal hol. Tethian xi bor dukh paba dhoilla. Tar xi tarei eta manhur osar\u00f6k zai asroe asroe lola. Manht\u00f6i tak bara sarba pothar\u00f6l khedala. Tate xi barai khawa ekbidh gas\u00f6r se\u1e45 khaba dhoilla. Te\u00f6 tak kay\u00f6 ak\u00f6 khaba neidla.Kamrupi (Barpeta): Kunba eta manh\u00f6r duta putek asil. Ekdin xorutu puteke bapek\u00f6k kolak, “Pita, amar xomp\u00f6ttir moi zikhini m\u00f6r bhag\u00f6t pa\u00fc xikhini m\u00f6k dia.” Tethen bapeke niz\u00f6r xomp\u00f6tti tahak bhage dilak. Tare keidinmen pis\u00f6te xei xoru putektui tar gotexopake loi ekhen duhrer dekh\u00f6k gusi gel, ar\u00f6 tate xi lompot hoi tar gotexopa xomp\u00f6ttike ure phellak. Tar pas\u00f6t xei dekhkhen\u00f6t mosto akal hol. Tethen xi xei dekh\u00f6r eta manh\u00f6r osr\u00f6t zai asroe lolak. Manuhtui tak bara sarbak login pathar\u00f6k khedolak. Tate xi ekbidh barai khawa gas\u00f6r s\u1ebdi khaba dhollak. Take dekhi\u00f6 kay\u00f6 tak ek\u00f6 khaba nedlak.Western Goalpariya (Salkocha): Kun\u00f6 ekzon mansir duizon sa\u00f6a asil. Tar s\u00f6totae bapok koil, “Baba somp\u00f6ttir ze bhag m\u00f6r, tak m\u00f6k de.” Tat o\u00eb nizer somp\u00f6tti umak batia dil. Tar olpo din pas\u00f6te \u00f6i s\u00f6ta sa\u00f6ata s\u00f6k g\u00f6tea dur desot gel. Ore lompot beboharot or somp\u00f6tti uzar koril. O\u00eb g\u00f6tay khoros korar pas\u00f6t oi desot boro akal hoil. Ote oya kosto paba dhoril. Sela o\u00eb zaya \u00f6i deser ekzon mansir asroe l\u00f6at \u00f6i manusi ok suar soraba patharot pothea dil. Ote suare kha\u00f6a ek rokom gaser sal dia pet bhoroba saile\u00f6 ok kaho kisu nadil.Non-regional dialects[edit]Assamese does not have many caste- or occupation-based dialects.[78] In the nineteenth century, the Eastern dialect became the standard dialect because it witnessed more literary activity and it was more uniform from east of Guwahati to Sadiya, whereas the western dialects were more heterogeneous. Since the nineteenth century, the center of literary activity (as well as of politics and commerce) has shifted to Guwahati; as a result, the standard dialect has evolved considerably away from the largely rural Eastern dialects and has become more urban and acquired western dialectal elements.[81] Most literary activity takes place in this dialect, and is often called the likhito-bhaxa, though regional dialects are often used in novels and other creative works.In addition to the regional variants, sub-regional, community-based dialects are also prevalent, namely:Standard dialect influenced by surrounding centers.Bhakatiya dialect highly polite, a sattra-based dialect with a different set of nominals, pronominals, and verbal forms, as well as a preference for euphemism; indirect and passive expressions. Some of these features are used in the standard dialect on very formal occasions.The fisherman community has a dialect that is used in the central and eastern region.The astrologer community of Darrang district has a dialect called thar that is coded and secretive. The ratikhowa and bhitarpanthiya secretive cult-based Vaisnava groups too have their own dialects.[83]The Muslim community have their own dialectal preference, with their own kinship, custom, and religious terms, with those in east Assam having distinct phonetic features.[81]The urban adolescent and youth communities (for example, Guwahati) have exotic, hybrid and local slangs.[81]Ethnic speech communities that use Assamese as a second language, often use dialects that are influenced heavily by the pronunciation, intonation, stress, vocabulary and syntax of their respective first languages (Mising Eastern Assamese, Bodo Central Kamrupi, Rabha Eastern Goalpariya etc.).[83] Two independent pidgins\/creoles, associated with the Assamese language, are Nagamese (used by Naga groups) and Nefamese (used in Arunachal Pradesh).[84]Literature[edit]There is a growing and strong body of literature in this language.The first characteristics of this language are seen in the Charyapadas composed in between the eighth and twelfth centuries. The first examples emerged in writings of court poets in the fourteenth century, the finest example of which is Madhav Kandali’s Saptakanda Ramayana. The popular ballad in the form of Ojapali is also regarded as well-crafted. The sixteenth and seventeenth centuries saw a flourishing of Vaishnavite literature, leading up to the emergence of modern forms of literature in the late nineteenth century.See also[edit]^ a b Assamese at Ethnologue (25th ed., 2022) ^ “SEAlang Library Ahom Lexicography”. sealang.net.^ a b Bhattacharjya, Dwijen (2001). The genesis and development of Nagamese: Its social history and linguistic structure (PhD). City University of New York. ProQuest\u00a0304688285.^ “Assamese”. Lexico UK English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 22 March 2020.^ Assamese is an anglicized term used for the language, but scholars have also used Asamiya (Moral 1992, Goswami & Tamuli 2003) or Asomiya as a close approximation of \/\u0254x\u0254mij\u0251\/, the word used by thespeakers for their language.  (Mahanta 2012:217)^ “Axomiya is the major language spoken in Assam, and serves almost as a lingua franca among the different speech communities in the whole area.” (Goswami 2003:394)^ Masica (1993, p.\u00a05)^ “…Rajbangshi dialect of the Rangpur Division (Bangladesh), and the adjacent Indian Districts of Jalpaiguri and Cooch Behar, has been classed with Bengali because its speakers identify with the Bengali culture and literary language, although it is linguistically closer to Assamese.” (Masica 1993, p.\u00a025)^ a b “Incidentally, literate Ahoms retained the Tai language and script well until the end of the 17th century. In that century of Ahom-Mughal conflicts, this language first coexisted with and then was progressively replaced by Assamese (Asamiya) at and outside the Court.” Guha (1983, p.\u00a09)^ Sen, Sukumar (1975), Grammatical sketches of Indian languages with comparative vocabulary and texts, Volume 1, P 31^ a b “Dr. S. K. Chatterji basing his conclusions on the materials accumulated in LSI, Part I, and other monographs on the Bengali dialects, divides Eastern Mag. Pkt. and Ap. into four dialect groups. (1) Raddha dialects which comprehend Western Bengali which gives standard Bengali colloquial and Oriya in the South West. (2) Varendra dialects of North Central Bengal. (3) Kumarupa dialects which comprehend Assamese and the dialects of North Bengal. (4) Vanga dialects which comprehend the dialects of East Bengal (ODBL VolI p140).” (Kakati 1941, p.\u00a06)^ Proto-Kamta took its inheritance from ?proto-Kamarupa (and before that from ?proto-Gauda-Kamarupa), innovated the unique features … in 1250-1550 AD” (Toulmin 2006:306)^ “Asamiya has historically originated in Old Indo-Aryan dialects, but the exact nature of its origin and growth is not very clear as yet.” (Goswami 2003:394)^ There is evidence that the Prakrit of the Kamarupa kingdom differed enough from the Magadhi Prakrit to be identified as either a parallel Kamrupi Prakrit or at least an eastern variety of the Magadha Prakrit (Sharma 1990:0.24\u20130.28)^ ‘One of the interesting theories propounded by Sri Medhi is the classification of Assamese “as a mixture of Eastern and Western groups” or a “mixture of Sauraseni and Magadhi”. But whether it is word resemblance or grammatical resemblance, the author admits that in some cases they may be accidental. But he says, “In any case, they may be of some help to scholars for more searching enquiry in future”.’ (Pattanayak 2016:43\u201344)^ a b “While Kakati’s assertion of an Austroasiatic substrate needs to be re-established on the basis of more systematic evidence, it is consistent with the general assumption that the lower Brahmaputra drainage was originally Austroasiatic speaking. It also implies the existence of a substantial Austroasiatic speaking population till the time of spread of Aryan culture into Assam, i.e. it implies that up until the 4th-5th centuries CE and probably much later Tibeto-Burman languages had not completely supplanted Austroasiatic languages.” (DeLancey 2012:13)^ “(W)e should imagine a linguistic patchwork with an eastern Indo-Aryan vernacular (not yet really “Assamese”) in the urban centers and along the river and Tibeto-Burman and Austroasiatic communities everywhere.” (DeLancey 2012:15\u201316)^ “It is curious to find that according to (Hiuen Tsang) the language of Kamarupa ‘differed a little’ from that of mid-India.  Hiuen Tsang is silent about the language of Pundra-vardhana or Karna-Suvarna; it can be presumed that the language of these tracts was identical with that of Magadha.” (Chatterji 1926, p.\u00a078)^ “Perhaps this ‘differing a little’ of the Kamarupa speech refers to those modifications of Aryan sounds which now characterise Assamese as well as North- and East-Bengali dialects.” (Chatterji 1926, pp.\u00a078\u201389)^ “When [the Tibeto-Burman speakers] adopted that language they also enriched it with their vocabularies, expressions, affixes etc.” (Saikia 1997)^ “… (it shows) that in Ancient Assam there were three languages viz. (1) Sanskrit as the official language and the language of the learned few, (2) Non-Aryan tribal languages of the Austric and Tibeto-Burman families, and (3) a local variety of Prakrit (ie a MIA) wherefrom, in course of time, the modern Assamese language as a MIL, emerged.” Sharma, Mukunda Madhava (1978). Inscriptions of Ancient Assam. Guwahati, Assam: Gauhati University. pp.\u00a0xxiv\u2013xxviii. OCLC\u00a0559914946.^ “The earliest specimen of Assamese language and literature is available in the doh\u0101s, known also as Cary\u0101s, written by the Buddhist Siddhacharyas hailing from different parts of eastern India. Some of them are identified as belonging to ancient K\u0101mar\u016bpa by the Sino-Tibetologists.” (Goswami 2003:433)^ “The language of [charyapadas] was also claimed to be early Assamese and early Bihari (Eastern Hindi) by various scholars. Although no systematic scientific study has been undertaken on the basis of comparative reconstruction, a cursory look is enough to suggest that the language of these texts represents a stage when the North-Eastern Prakrit was either not differentiated or at an early stage of differentiation into the regional languages of North-Eastern India.” (Pattanayak 2016:127)^ “The folk-song like Deh Bicarar Git and some aphorisms are found to contain sometimes the spirit and way of expression of the charyapadas.” (Saikia 1997:5)^ “”There are some works of the period between 12th and 14th centuries, which kept the literary tradition flowing after the period of the charyapadas. They are Sunya Puran of Ramai Pandit, Krishna Kirtan of Boru Chandi Das, Gopichandrar Gan of Sukur Mamud. Along with these three works Gobindachandrar Git of Durllava Mullik and Mainamatirgan of Bhavani Das also deserve mention here.” (Saikia 1997:5)^ “No doubt some expression close to the Bengali language can be found in these works.  But grammatical peculiarities prove these works to be in the Assamese language of the western part of Assam.” (Saikia 1997:5)^ “In Krishna Kirtana for instance, the first personal affixes of the present indicative are -i and -o; the former is found in Bengali at present and the later in Assamese. Similarly the negative particle na- assimilated to the initial vowel of the conjugated root which is characteristic of Assamese is also found in Krishna Kirtana. Modern Bengali places the negative particle after the conjugated root.” (Kakati 1953:5)^ “In summary, none of Pattanayak’s changes are diagnostic of a unique proto Bangla-Asamiya subgroup that also includes proto Kamta…. Grierson’s contention may well be true that ‘Gau\u1e0da Apabhra\u1e41\u015ba’ was the parent speech both of Kamrupa and today’s Bengal (see quote under \u00a77.3.2), but it has not yet been proven as such by careful historical linguistic reconstruction.” and “Though it has not been the purpose of this study to reconstruct higher level proto-languages beyond proto-Kamta, the reconstruction here has turned up three morphological innovations\u2014[MI 73.] (diagnostic), [MI 2] (supportive), [MI 70] (supportive)\u2014which provide some evidence for a proto-language which may be termed proto Gau\u1e0da-Kamrupa.” (Toulmin 2009:213)^ “However, the earliest literary work available which may be claimed as distinctly Asamiya is the Prahr\u0101da Carita written by a court poet named Hema Sarasvat\u012b in the latter half of the thirteenth century AD.(Goswami 2003:433)^ a b c d e (Goswami 2003:434)^ (Kakati 1953:5)^ “The phonological and morphological reconstruction of the present study has found three morphological innovations that give some answers to these questions: [MI 67.] (diagnostic), [MI 22.] (supportive), and [MI 23.] (supportive). These changes provide evidence for a proto Kamrupa stage of linguistic history\u2014ancestral to proto-Kamta and proto eastern-Kamrupa (Asamiya). However, a thorough KRDS-andAsamiya-wide reconstruction of linguistic history is required before this protostage can be robustly established.” (Toulmin 2009:214)^ “Sankaradeva (1449\u20131567) brought about a Vaishnavite revival accompanied by a revival of the language and literature.” (Goswami 2003:434)^ “[Bhattadev’s] prose was an artificial one and yet it preserves certain grammatical peculiarities. The first personal ending -m in the future tense appears for the first time in writing side by side with the conventional -bo.” (Kakati 1953:6)^ a b (Kakati 1953:6)^ (Kakati 1953:7)^ “The British administration introduced Bangla in all offices, in the courts and schools of Assam.” (Goswami 2003:435)^ “By 1772, the Company had skillfully employed the sword, diplomacy, and intrigue to take over the rule of Bengal from her people, factious nobles, and weak Nawab. Subsequently, to consolidate its hold on the province, the Company promoted the Bengali language. This did not represent an intrinsic love for Bengali speech and literature. Instead it was aimed at destroying traditional patterns of authority through supplanting the Persian language which had been the official tongue since the days of the great Moguls.” (Khan 1962:53)^ “[W]e should not assent to uphold a corrupt dialect, but endeavour to introduce pure Bengallee, and to render this Province as far as possible an integral part of the great country to which that language belongs, and to render available to Assam the literature of Bengal. – This brief aside of Francis Jenkins in a Revenue Consultation remains one of theclearest policy statements of the early British Indian administration regarding thevernacular question in Assam.” (Kar 2008:28)^ (Kar 2008:40\u201345)^ “He wrote under a pen name, A Native, a book in English, A Few Remarks on the Assamese Language and on Vernacular Education in Assam, 1855, and had 100 copies of it printed by A H Danforth at the Sibsagar Baptist Mission Press.  One copy of the publication was sent to the Government of Bengal and other copies were distributed free among leading men of Assam.  An abstract of this was published later in The Indian Antiquary (1897, p57)“. (Neog 1980:15)^ “In less than twenty years’ time, the government actually revised its classification and declared Assamese as the official vernacular of the Assam Division (19 April 1873), as a prelude to the constitution of a separate Chief Commissionership of Assam (6 February 1874).” (Kar 2008:45)^ (Kar 2008:38)^ (Kar 2008:46\u201347)^ (Kar 2008:51\u201355)^ “They looked back to the fully mature prose of the historical writings of earlier periods, which possessed all the strength and vitality to stand the new challenge. Hemchandra Barua and his followers immediately reverted to the syntax and style of that prose, and Sanskritized the orthography and spelling system entirely. He was followed by one and all including the missionaries themselves, in their later writings. And thus, the solid plinth of the modern standard language was founded and accepted as the norm all over the state.” (Goswami 2003:435)^ “In contemporary Assam, for the purposes of mass media and communication, a certain neutral blend of eastern Assamese, without too many distinctive eastern features, like \/\u0279\/ deletion, which is a robust phenomenon in the eastern varieties, isstill considered to be the norm.” (Mahanta 2012:217)^ “Now, Dispur, the Capital city being around Guwahati, as also with the spread of literacy and education in the western Assam districts, forms of the Central and Western dialects have been creeping into the literary idiom and reshaping the standard language during the last few decades.” (Goswami 2003:436)^ “Assamese Association \u2013 of Australia (ACT & NSW)”.^ “Welcome to the Website of “Axom Xomaj”,Dubai, UAE (Assam Society of Dubai, UAE)!”.^ “Constitution”. Archived from the original on 27 December 2018. Retrieved 5 June 2016.^ “AANA – AANA Overview”.^ “Secretariat Administration Department”. assam.gov.in. Archived from the original on 20 June 2018. Retrieved 5 June 2016.^ a b c d Assamese Archived 28 July 2012 at the Wayback Machine, Resource Centre for Indian Language Technology Solutions, Indian Institute of Technology, Guwahati.^ (Mahanta 2012:220)^ (Mahanta 2012:218)^ “Assamese, alone among NIA languages except for Romany, has also lost the characteristic IA dental\/retroflex contrast (although it is retained in spelling), reducing the number of articulations, with the loss also of \/c\/, to three.” (Masica 1993, p.\u00a095)^ The word “hare”, for example: \u015ba\u015bka (OIA) > \u03c7\u0254h\u0101 (hare).  (Masica 1993, p.\u00a0206)^ Goswami, Upendranath (1970), A Study on Kamrupi, p.xiii \/x\/ does not occur finally in Kamrupi. But in St. Coll. it occurs. In non-initial positions O.I.A sibilants became \/k\u02b0\/ and also \/h\/ whereas in St. Coll. they become \/x\/.^ B Datta (1982), Linguistic situation in north-east India, the distinctive h sound of Assamese is absent in the West Goalpariya dialect^ Whereas most fricatives become sibilants in Eastern Goalpariya (sukh, santi, asa in Eastern Goalpariya; xukh, xanti, axa in western Kamrupi) (Dutta 1995, p.\u00a0286); some use of the fricative is seen as in the word xi (for both “he” and “she”) (Dutta 1995, p.\u00a0287) and xap khar (the snake) (Dutta 1995, p.\u00a0288). The \/x\/ is completely absent in Western Goalpariya (Dutta 1995, p.\u00a0290)^ Chatterjee, Suniti Kumar, Kirata Jana Krti, p. 54.^ Directionality and locality in vowel harmony: With special reference to vowel harmony in Assamese (Thesis) \u2013 via www.lotpublications.nl.^ (Mahanta 2012:221)^ Bora, Mahendra (1981). The Evolution of the Assamese Script. Jorhat, Assam: Asam Sahitya Sabha. pp.\u00a05, 53. OCLC\u00a059775640.^ “Universal Declaration of Human Rights Assamese ()” (PDF). ohchr.org. Retrieved 21 September 2020.^ (Sarma 2017:119)^ “Assamese may be divided dialectically into Eastern and Western Assamese” (Kakati 1941, p.\u00a016)^ “Assamese:Its formation and development” \u2013 via Internet Archive.^ (Goswami 2003:403)^ a b c (Dutta 2003, p.\u00a0106)^ a b (Dutta 2003, p.\u00a0107)^ (Dutta 2003, pp.\u00a0108\u2013109)References[edit]Chatterji (1926). The Origin and Development of the Bengali Language.DeLancey, Scott (2012). “On the Origin of Bodo-Garo”.  In Hyslop, Gwendolyn; Morey, Stephen; Post, Mark W. (eds.). Northeast Indian Linguistics. Vol.\u00a04. pp.\u00a03\u201320. doi:10.1017\/UPO9789382264521.003. ISBN\u00a0978-93-82264-52-1.Dutta, Birendranath (1995). A Study of the Folk Culture of the Goalpara Region of Assam. Guwahati, Assam: University Publication Department, Gauhati University. ISBN\u00a0978-81-86416-13-6.Dutta, Birendranath (2003). “Non-Standard Forms of Assamese: Their Socio-cultural Role”.  In Miri, Mrinal (ed.). Linguistic Situation in North-East India (2nd\u00a0ed.). Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi. pp.\u00a0101\u2013110. ISBN\u00a0978-81-8069-026-6.Goswami, G. C.; Tamuli, Jyotiprakash (2003). “Asamiya”.  In Cardona, George; Jain, Dhanesh (eds.). The Indo-Aryan languages. Routledge. pp.\u00a0391\u2013443. ISBN\u00a0978-0-7007-1130-7.Guha, Amalendu (December 1983). “The Ahom Political System: An Enquiry into the State Formation Process in Medieval Assam (1228-1714)” (PDF). Social Scientist. 11 (12): 3\u201334. doi:10.2307\/3516963. JSTOR\u00a03516963.Kakati, Banikanta (1941). Assamese: Its Formation and Development. Gauhati, Assam: Government of Assam.Kakati, Banikanta (1953). “Assamese Language”.  In Kakati, Banikanta (ed.). Aspects of Early Assamese Literature. Gauhati University. pp.\u00a01\u201316. OCLC\u00a0578299.Kar, Boddhisattva (2008). “‘Tongue Has No Bone’: Fixing the Assamese Language, c.1800\u2013c.1930″. Studies in History. 24 (1): 27\u201376. doi:10.1177\/025764300702400102. S2CID\u00a0144577541.Khan, M. Siddiq (1962). “The Early History of Bengali Printing”. The Library Quarterly: Information, Community, Policy. 32 (1): 51\u201361. doi:10.1086\/618956. JSTOR\u00a04305188. S2CID\u00a0148408211.Kommaluri, Vijayanand; Subramanian, R.; Sagar K, Anand (2005). “Issues in Morphological Analysis of North-East Indian Languages”. Language in India. 5.Mahanta, Sakuntala (2012). “Assamese”. Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 42 (2): 217\u2013224. doi:10.1017\/S0025100312000096.Masica, Colin P (1993). The Indo-Aryan Languages. Cambridge University Press. ISBN\u00a0978-0-521-29944-2. Retrieved 4 February 2013.Medhi, Kaliram (1988). Assamese Grammar and the Origin of Assamese Language. Guwahati: Publication Board, Assam. OCLC\u00a022067340.Moral, Dipankar (1997). “North-East India as a Linguistic Area” (PDF). Mon-Khmer Studies. 27: 43\u201353.Neog, Maheshwar (1980). Anandaram Dhekiyal Phukan. New Delhi: Sahiyta Akademi. OCLC\u00a09110997.Oberlies, Thomas (2007). “Chapter Five: A\u015bokan Prakrit and P\u0101li”.  In Cardona, George; Jain, Danesh (eds.). The Indo-Aryan Languages. Routledge. ISBN\u00a0978-1-135-79711-9.Pattanayak, D. P. (2016). “Oriya and Assamese”.  In Emeneau, Murray B.; Fergusson, Charles A. (eds.). Linguistics in South Asia. De Gruyter. pp.\u00a0122\u2013152. ISBN\u00a0978-3-11-081950-2.Saikia, Nagen (1997). “Assamese”.  In Paniker (ed.). Medieval Indian Literature: Surveys and selections. pp.\u00a03\u201320. ISBN\u00a0978-81-260-0365-5.Sarma, Parismita (2017). Analysis and building an unrestricted speech synthesizer with reference to assamese language (PhD). Gauhati University. hdl:10603\/195592.Sharma, M. M. (1990). “Language and Literature”.  In Barpujari, H. K. (ed.). The Comprehensive History of Assam: Ancient Period. Vol.\u00a0I. Guwahati, Assam: Publication Board, Assam. pp.\u00a0263\u2013284. OCLC\u00a025163745.Toulmin, Mathew W S (2006). Reconstructing linguistic history in a dialect continuum: The Kamta, Rajbanshi, and Northern Deshi Bangla subgroup of Indo-Aryan (PhD). The Australian National University.Toulmin, Mathew W S (2009). From Linguistic to Sociolinguistic Reconstruction: The Kamta Historical Subgroup of Indo-Aryan. Pacific Linguistics. ISBN\u00a0978-0-85883-604-4.External links[edit]Wikivoyage has a phrasebook for Assamese.     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