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Plon\u00a0; 1868)       (adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || []).push({});after-content-x4The Revolutionary Tribunal (French: Tribunal r\u00e9volutionnaire; unofficially Popular Tribunal)[1] was a court instituted by the National Convention during the French Revolution for the trial of political offenders. It eventually became one of the most powerful engines of the Reign of Terror.[2]       (adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || []).push({});after-content-x4Table of ContentsJudicial reforms[edit]Operation[edit]Criticism[edit]After Thermidor[edit]Assessment[edit]List of court presidents[edit]List of public prosecutors[edit]References[edit]Sources[edit]Further reading[edit]External links[edit]Judicial reforms[edit]  Accusateur public – Insigne du Tribunal r\u00e9volutionnaireEarly 1791 freedom of defence became the standard; any citizen was allowed to defend another.[3][4] From the beginning, the authorities were concerned about this experiment. Derasse suggests it was a “collective suicide” by the lawyers in the Assembly.[5]  In criminal cases, the expansion of the right … gave priority to the spoken word.[6] By December 1791 deputies voted themselves the power to select the judges, jury and accusateur public.[7] On 15 February 1792 the Tribunal Criminel was installed with Maximilien Robespierre as accusateur. On 10 April Robespierre decided to give up his position and became an ordinary citizen who published a magazine.[8] Along with other Jacobins, he urged in the fifth issue of his magazine the creation of an “arm\u00e9e r\u00e9volutionnaire” in Paris, consisting of at least 20 or 23,000 men,[9][10] to defend the city, “liberty” (the revolution), maintain order in the sections and educate the members in democratic principles; an idea he borrowed from Jean-Jacques Rousseau.[11]The provisional Revolutionary Tribunal was established on 17 August 1792 in response to the Storming of the Tuileries. To ensure that there was some appropriate legal process for dealing with suspects accused of political crimes and treason, rather than arbitrary killing by local committees, Maximilien Robespierre proposed that a new Tribunal be set up, with extraordinary powers to impose the death sentence.[12]:\u200a201\u200a The Tribunal was abolished in November 1792 at the start of the trial of Louis XVI, and during this time had sentenced twenty-eight people to death. Mostly these were ordinary criminals rather than political prisoners.[12]:\u200a202\u200a[13]       (adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || []).push({});after-content-x4It incorporated elements from the reformed criminal justice system of 1791 as well as features with a more ‘extraordinary’ or ‘revolutionary’ potential. A bench of five judges would be responsible for running the court itself, but the Convention would control the caseload through deputies elected to a commission de six. Cases would then be presented to the court by an accusateur public (public prosecutor) helped in his work by two deputies, and jurors would decide on the guilt or innocence of defendants. The judges would then invoke punishments in accordance with the 1791 Penal Code…[14]The Revolutionary Tribunal was re-established at a time of crisis in the new French Republic. In the Spring of 1793, the war with the First Coalition was going badly and food shortages were worsening.[15]:\u200a325\u200a The government responded by taking a number of measures to defend the integrity of the Republic. On 24 February the National Convention decided to create an army of 300,000 by means of a lev\u00e9e en masse;[15]:\u200a325\u200a on 9 March it decided to send a repr\u00e9sentant en mission from the Convention to every d\u00e9partement.[15]:\u200a326\u200aEven in these circumstances, the Convention was initially reluctant to restore the Revolutionary Tribunal.  On 10 March, responding to serious disorder in the streets of Paris, Georges Danton, with Robespierre’s support, proposed its revival, but the majority of deput\u00e9s were not in favour. After a long debate, towards midnight, Danton was able to persuade a majority to vote for it only by raising the spectre of further uncontrolled massacres, as had taken place the previous September.  If the Convention did not agree to create the Tribunal, he argued, the people would be compelled to make their own justice.[12]:\u200a235\u200a“Let us be terrible,” said Danton, “so that the people will not have to be.”[16] On this basis, the Convention finally agreed that there should be established in Paris the Extraordinary Criminal Tribunal[17]:\u200a162\u200a[18] (Tribunal criminel extraordinaire), which received the official name of the Revolutionary Tribunal by a decree of 29 October 1793.Other measures taken in response to the crisis around the same time included the formal establishment of a Revolutionary Watch Committee in every neighbourhood [15]:\u200a328\u200a and the creation of the Committee of Public Safety on 6 April.[15]:\u200a331\u200a  Proc\u00e8s de Marie-Antoinette le 15 octobre 1793The court was to hear cases of alleged counter-revolutionary offences from across France. It was composed of a jury of twelve. This was an innovation in French justice, borrowed from English law (although for the Revolutionary Tribunal the jury was carefully selected from politically reliable activists).[17]:\u200a162\u200a It had five judges, a public prosecutor, and two deputy prosecutors, all nominated by the Convention; and from its judgements, there was no appeal.Jacques-Bernard-Marie Montan\u00e9 became President of the Tribunal until he was replaced in his post on 23 August 1793 by M. J. A. Herman. Fouquier-Tinville served as public prosecutor. The lists of prisoners to be sent before the tribunal were prepared by a popular commission and signed, after revision, by the Committee of General Security and the Committee of Public Safety jointly.On 5 September 1793, the Convention declared that “terror is the order of the day” and split the Revolutionary Tribunal into four concurrent chambers so that the number of cases it dealt with could be greatly increased.  It also decided that all jurors in the Tribunal should be directly appointed by the Committee of Public Safety or the Committee of General Security. This followed the news that rebels in Toulon had handed the city over to the British and several days of rioting in Paris.[12]:\u200a257\u20138\u200aOperation[edit]One of the earliest cases brought to the Tribunal led to its most famous acquittal. On 13 April 1793 Girondin deput\u00e9s brought an accusation against Jean-Paul Marat. Crucially, this involved waiving the immunity enjoyed until then by members of the Convention (Marat was himself a deput\u00e9). Not only did the case against Marat collapse, but two days after his case was brought, members of the Paris Commune responded by bringing a case to the Tribunal against 22 leading Girondins. This case was dismissed, but the principle that Convention members could be tried by the Tribunal was an important one, and ultimately led to the Girondin leaders being tried and executed in October 1793.[20][21][22]During the months when Montan\u00e9 served as its President, the Tribunal dealt with 178 accused.  53% of these were set free after initial examination by a judge, without a full trial, while a further 17% were tried and acquitted by a jury. 5% were convicted and sentenced to imprisonment or deportation, and 25% were sentenced to death.[23] From its formation up to September 1793, the Tribunal heard 260 cases and handed down 66 death penalties. As a result, it was criticized as ineffective by some Jacobins.[13] The Law of Suspects (17 September 1793) greatly increased the number of prisoners who were imprisoned and might be brought to trial.[12]:\u200a257\u20138\u200a Between October and the end of 1793 the Tribunal issued 177 death sentences.[13]Similar tribunaux r\u00e9volutionnaires were also in operation in the various French departments. However, on 16 April 1794 (27 Germinal Year II) the Convention approved a report by St. Just proposing the abolition of the existing revolutionary tribunals in individual d\u00e9partements and requiring all suspects to be sent to the main tribunal in Paris.[15]:\u200a417\u200a On 21 May 1794 the government decided that the Terror would be centralized, with almost all the tribunals in the provinces closed and all the trials held in Paris.[24] The provincial tribunals which were allowed to continue their work were Bordeaux, Arras, and N\u00eemes in the south, as well as Arras and Cambrai in the north.[25]One day Robespierre decided: “The Tribunal will judge only one form of offence: High Treason; for which there is only one punishment, death. It is therefore useless that time should be wasted in long deliberations”[26][citation needed]Following the attempted assassinations of Convention members Jean-Marie Collot d’Herbois on 23 May and Maximilien Robespierre on 25 May 1794, on 10 June (22 Prairial Year II) the so-called “Prairial Laws” were passed. These limited trials in the Revolutionary Tribunal to three days.[15]:\u200a426\u200a They also prevented the Revolutionary Tribunal from calling witnesses, or from allowing defense counsel. Juries were to convict or acquit entirely on the basis of the accusation and the accused’s own defense. Further, the new laws confined the Tribunal to only two possible verdicts \u2013 acquittal or death.[16]:\u200a837\u200a Finally, the law cancelled all previous legislation on the same subject.  Without being explicit, this removed the immunity of members of the Convention which up till then had protected them from summary arrest and required that the Convention itself vote to send any of its members to trial.[27]Three days after the Prairial laws were passed, the guillotine was moved out of Paris. It had previously stood on the Place du Carrousel, was then moved to the Place de la Revolution, and then again to the Place St Antoine and later to the Place du Tr\u00f4ne-Renvers\u00e9. As the Revolutionary Tribunal accelerated the pace of executions, it became impractical to have it in the city.[15]:\u200a427\u200aCriticism[edit]The powers of the Revolutionary Tribunal were granted by the Convention, and there was only limited criticism of it. Royalists, \u00e9migr\u00e9s and federalists were clearly opposed to the Tribunal and its workings, but since public criticism in Paris or in the press would be regarded as treasonable, it barely existed.  At the same time, there were periodic demands from Enrag\u00e9s[28][29] and H\u00e9bertists[16]:\u200a806\u200a that the Tribunal accelerate its work and condemn more of the accused.Among the first to speak up publicly against the Tribunal was Camille Desmoulins in his short-lived journal, “Le Vieux Cordelier”.[30]  As a result of his criticisms he was expelled from the Jacobin Club.  Later he was arrested, tried and executed together with Danton.[12]:\u200a286\u200aOn the eve of his execution, Danton expressed his regret for having advocated the Tribunal. “It was just a year ago that I was the means of instituting the Revolutionary Tribunal; may God and man forgive me for what I did then; but it was not that it might become the scourge of humanity.”[31]Although the Revolutionary Tribunal was not criticized directly in the Convention while Robespierre held power, his proposals for the Prairial Laws were met with dismay when they were presented to the Convention. Some of the deputies were uneasy, in particular, about the removal of their immunity.  They agreed to the law when Robespierre insisted on it, but the following day attempted to amend it, obliging Robespierre to return to the Convention and make them restore the original version.[32]After Thermidor[edit]  Sketch of Fouquier-Tinville made during his trialAfter the overthrow of Robespierre in July 1794, some people expected the Revolutionary Tribunal to be abolished, but this did not happen. In the five days after the Thermidorian Reaction, the Convention freed 478 political prisoners, but 8,000 still remained incarcerated, despite popular demands for a general amnesty.[15]:\u200a441\u200aOn 1 August 1794 (14 Thermidor Year II) the Prairial Laws were revoked, meaning that the burden of proof against suspects was once again with the prosecution. Soon afterwards, all of the judges on the Revolutionary Tribunal were replaced, and the local surveillance committees were curtailed, so that there were henceforth to be only twelve in Paris and one per district outside the capital.[15]:\u200a440\u200a The Law on Suspects however remained in force.The Revolutionary Tribunal was used by the Thermidorian Convention as an instrument to destroy the political leaders who had taken an active part in the Reign of Terror. On 16 December 1794 (26 Frimaire Year III) Jean-Baptiste Carrier was sentenced to death and executed.[15]:\u200a462\u200a On 6 May 1795 (17 Floreal Year III), the former President of the Revolutionary Tribunal, Martial Herman, the former Chief Prosecutor Fouquier-Tinville and fourteen former jury members of the Revolutionary Tribunal were convicted, and the following day, guillotined.[15]:\u200a477\u200a After most of those associated with the Reign of Terror had been eliminated, the Revolutionary Tribunal was finally suppressed on 31 May 1795 (12 Prairial Year III).[15]:\u200a479\u200aWhile the Convention itself had most people associated with the Revolutionary Tribunal in Paris executed, no similar official process was followed in the provinces. In 1795, the First White Terror broke out in parts of the country, particularly in the South East, as anti-Jacobin mobs attacked and murdered people who had been associated with revolutionary tribunals in their area.[33] On 14 February 1795 for example, Joseph Fernex, who had served as a judge on the Tribunal in Orange, was killed and thrown into the Rh\u00f4ne by a mob.[15]:\u200a468\u200a On 27 June other members of the same tribunal received the same treatment.[15]:\u200a484\u200aAssessment[edit]From the beginning of 1793 to the Thermidorian Reaction, 17,000 people were sentenced and beheaded by some form of revolutionary court in France (in Paris or in the provinces), in addition to some 25,000 others who were summarily executed in the September Massacres, retributions in the War in the Vend\u00e9e and elsewhere. The Paris Revolutionary Tribunal was responsible for 16% of all death sentences.[15]:\u200a437\u200aOf all those accused by the Revolutionary Tribunal, about half were acquitted (the number dropped to a quarter after the enactment of the Law of 22 Prairial Year II) (10 June 1794).[34] Before 22 Prairial the Revolutionary Tribunal had pronounced 1,220 death sentences in thirteen months; during the forty-nine days between the passing of the law and the fall of Robespierre 1,376 persons were condemned (an average of 28 per day).List of court presidents[edit]Jacques-Bernard-Marie Montan\u00e9 13 March 1793 to 23 August 1793Martial Herman 28 August 1793 to 7 April 1794Ren\u00e9-Fran\u00e7ois Dumas 8 April 1794 to 27 July 1794Claude-Emmanuel Dobsen 28 July 1794 to 31 May 1795List of public prosecutors[edit]Louis-Joseph Faure 13 March 1793 (rejected election)Antoine Quentin Fouquier-Tinville 13 March 1793 to 1 August 1794Michel-Joseph Leblois August 1794 to January 1795Antoine Judicis January 1795 to 31 May 1795References[edit]^ David Andress (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of the French Revolution, Oxford University Press, 2015, p. 447.^ \u00a0One or more of the preceding sentences\u00a0incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:\u00a0Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). “Revolutionary Tribunal, The“. Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica. Vol.\u00a023 (11th\u00a0ed.). Cambridge University Press. p.\u00a0224.^ Journal des \u00c9tats g\u00e9n\u00e9raux convoqu\u00e9s par Louis XVI, 28 septembre 1791^ Nicolas Derasse, “Les d\u00e9fenseurs officieux\u00a0: une d\u00e9fense sans barreaux”, Annales historiques de la R\u00e9volution fran\u00e7aise [Online], 350 | octobre-d\u00e9cembre 2007, Online since 01 January 2011, connection on 04 December 2021. URL: http:\/\/journals.openedition.org\/ahrf\/11230; DOI: https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4000\/ahrf.11230^ Derasse, N. (2012). WORDS AND LIBERTY: HOPES FOR LEGAL DEFENCE DURING THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. In: Quaderni Storici, 47 (141 (3)), p. 763. http:\/\/www.jstor.org\/stable\/43780153 ^ H.Leuwers (2012} Defence in writing. The end of the printed legal brief (France, 1788-1792)^ 1790-1792 by \u00c9tienne Cabe, p. 38^ H. Leuwers (2014) Robespierre, p. 211^ Le D\u00e9fenseur de la Constitution n\u00b0 5 (1792)^ Haydon & Doyle 2006, pp.\u00a0133\u201336, in “Robespierre, the war and its organization” by Forrest, A..^ Snyder, Claire R. (28 August 1999). Citizen-Soldiers and Manly Warriors: Military Service and Gender in the Civic Republican Tradition. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. pp.\u00a046, 55. ISBN\u00a0978-0-7425-7353-6.^ a b c d e f Ruth Scurr (17 April 2007). Fatal Purity: Robespierre and the French Revolution. Henry Holt and Company. ISBN\u00a0978-0-8050-8261-6.^ a b c Tulard, Jean. “Tribunal R\u00e9volutionnaire”. universalis.fr. Encyclop\u00e6dia Universalis. Retrieved 24 May 2018.^ A. Fairfax-Cholmeley (2018) Creating and Resisting the Terror: the Paris Revolutionary Tribunal, March-June 1793^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Nevin, Louis (1989). Chronicle of the French Revolution. London: Longman. ISBN\u00a00-582-05194-0.^ a b c Schama, Simon (1989). Citizens. London: Penguin. p.\u00a0707. ISBN\u00a00-14-008728-1.^ a b Andress, David (2005). The Terror: Civil War in the French Revolution. London: Abacus. ISBN\u00a00-349-11588-5.^ Kelly, George Armstrong (1982). Victims, Authority and Terror. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. p.\u00a0125. ISBN\u00a00-8078-1495-4.^ M A Kennedy; Michael L. Kennedy (2000). The Jacobin Clubs in the French Revolution, 1793\u20131795. Berghahn Books. p.\u00a018. ISBN\u00a0978-1-57181-186-8.^ Lisa Rosner; John Theibault (26 March 2015). A Short History of Europe, 1600\u20131815: Search for a Reasonable World. Routledge. p.\u00a0363. ISBN\u00a0978-1-317-47792-1.^ David P. Jordan (16 October 2013). Revolutionary Career of Maximilien Robespierre. Simon and Schuster. p.\u00a0152. ISBN\u00a0978-1-4767-2571-0.^ Philip Dawson; Fernand Nicola\u00ff (1972). Provincial Magistrates and Revolutionary Politics in France, 1789\u20131795. Harvard University Press. p.\u00a0305. ISBN\u00a0978-0-674-71960-6.^ Davidson, Ian. The French Revolution \u2013 From Enlightenment to Tyranny. London: Profile Books Ltd, 2016^ Brett Bowden; Michael T. Davis (2008). Terror: From Tyrannicide to Terrorism. Univ. of Queensland Press. p.\u00a088. ISBN\u00a0978-0-7022-3599-3.^ Mary Duclaux (1918) A short history of France, p. 239^ Thompson, J.M. (1988). Robespierre. London: Blackwell. p.\u00a0508. ISBN\u00a0978-0631155041.^ Jacques Roux. “Manifesto of the Enrag\u00e9s“, Trans. Mitchell Abidor, 25 June 1793, Marxist Internet Archive^ Richet, Denis (1989). “Enrag\u00e9s” in Critical Dictionary of the French Revolution. Harvard University Press. p.\u00a0339. ISBN\u00a09780674177284.^ “Revolution Devours Its Own\u2014Le Vieux Cordelier”. chnm.gmu.edu. George Mason University. 15 December 1793. Retrieved 21 May 2018.^ Adolphe Thiers (10 November 2011). The History of the French Revolution. Cambridge University Press. p.\u00a0183. ISBN\u00a0978-1-108-03526-2.^ Matrat, Jean (1975). Robespierre: Or, The Tyranny of the Majority. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons. pp.\u00a0260\u2013261. ISBN\u00a0978-0207954771.^ Denis Woronoff (23 February 1984). The Thermidorean Regime and the Directory 1794\u20131799. Cambridge University Press. pp.\u00a0ix\u2013x. ISBN\u00a0978-0-521-289177.^ “Le Tribunal r\u00e9volutionnaire”.Sources[edit]Further reading[edit]TABLEAU RECAPITULATIF DES JUGEMENTS RENDUS PAR LE TRIBUNALActes du tribunal r\u00e9volutionnaire, \u00e9ditions Mercure de France, coll. \u00ab\u00a0Le temps retrouv\u00e9\u00a0\u00bb, 2005, 640 p. ISBN\u00a09782715225916.Archives parlementaires de 1787 \u00e0 1860\u00a0: recueil complet des d\u00e9bats l\u00e9gislatifs et politiques des Chambres fran\u00e7aises, 1re s\u00e9rie, 1787 \u00e0 1799. t. lx.Jean-Baptiste Sirey, Du tribunal r\u00e9volutionnaire, frimaire an III (1794), chez l’imprimeur Du Pont, Rue de la Loi (Paris), 104 pages.External links[edit]     (adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || []).push({});after-content-x4"},{"@context":"http:\/\/schema.org\/","@type":"BreadcrumbList","itemListElement":[{"@type":"ListItem","position":1,"item":{"@id":"https:\/\/wiki.edu.vn\/en\/wiki41\/#breadcrumbitem","name":"Enzyklop\u00e4die"}},{"@type":"ListItem","position":2,"item":{"@id":"https:\/\/wiki.edu.vn\/en\/wiki41\/revolutionary-tribunal-wikipedia\/#breadcrumbitem","name":"Revolutionary Tribunal – Wikipedia"}}]}]