Carbon footprint – Wikipedia

Posted on by

A measure to calculate greenhouse gas emissions

Carbon footprint scale of meat eating
Carbon footprint scale of transportation means

A carbon footprint (or greenhouse gas footprint) is a “certain amount of gaseous emissions that are relevant to climate change and associated with human production or consumption activities”.[1] In some cases, the carbon footprint is expressed as the carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e) which is meant to sum up the total greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions caused by an individual, event, organization, service, place or product.[2] In other cases, only the carbon dioxide emissions are taken into account but not those of other greenhouse gases.[3] Greenhouse gases, including the carbon-containing gases carbon dioxide and methane, can be emitted through the burning of fossil fuels, land clearance, and the production and consumption of food, manufactured goods, materials, wood, roads, buildings, transportation and other services.[4] As well as calculating carbon footprints for whole countries, it is also possible to calculate the footprint of regions, cities, and neighbourhoods.[5]

The global average annual carbon footprint per person in 2014 was about 5 tonnes CO2e.[6] The average carbon footprint for a U.S. citizen is 16 tons.[7] This is one of the highest rates in the world.[8]

The use of household carbon footprint calculators originated when oil producer BP hired Ogilvy to create an “effective propaganda” campaign. Critics have said that the aim was to shift responsibility of climate change-causing pollution away from the corporations and institutions and onto personal lifestyle choices.[9][10]

Definitions[edit]

The IPCC uses the following definition for carbon footprint: “Measure of the exclusive total amount of emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2 ) that is directly and indirectly caused by an activity or is accumulated over the lifecycle stages of a product.”[3] They chose to adopt the same definition that had been proposed in 2007 by two scientists from the UK.[1] Those scientists had pointed out that there was no clear definition of the term yet.[1]

In this definition, only carbon dioxide is included in the analysis, rather than the carbon dioxide equivalents which would factor in other greenhouse gases as well. Their reasoning for not included other greenhouse gases was that those are more difficult to quantify. An inclusion of all greenhouse gases would also make the carbon footprint indicator less practical.[1]

Some organizations use the term greenhouse gas footprint or climate footprint[11] when all greenhouse gases are included via their global warming potential (or carbon dioxide equivalents).[citation needed] However, it is also common to understand carbon footprint in the same way, i.e. for all the greenhouse gases, not just for carbon dioxide.

Related concepts[edit]

[edit]

The concept and name of the carbon footprint was derived from the ecological footprint concept.[1] While carbon footprints are usually reported in tons of emissions (CO2-equivalent) per year, ecological footprints are usually reported in comparison to what the planet can renew. This assesses the number of “earths” that would be required if everyone on the planet consumed resources at the same level as the person calculating their ecological footprint. The carbon footprint is one part of the ecological footprint. Carbon footprints are more focused than ecological footprints since they merely measure emissions of gases that cause climate change into the atmosphere.[citation needed]

Carbon footprint is one of a family of footprint indicators,[12] which also include ecological footprints, water footprints and land footprints.

Carbon accounting[edit]

Depiction of sources for Scopes 1, 2, and 3 emissions used in Greenhouse Gas Protocol (a type of carbon accounting method)[13]

Carbon accounting (or greenhouse gas accounting) is a framework of methods to measure and track how much greenhouse gas (GHG) an organization emits.[14] It can also be used to track projects or actions to reduce emissions in sectors such as forestry or renewable energy. Corporations, cities and other groups use these techniques to help limit climate change. Organizations will often set an emissions baseline, create targets for reducing emissions, and track progress towards them. The accounting methods enable them to do this in a more consistent and transparent manner.

These techniques can also help understand the impacts of specific products and services by quantifying their GHG emissions throughout their lifecycle. This can promote more environmentally-friendly purchasing decisions. GHG accounting methods can help investors better understand the climate risks of companies they invest in. Corporate and community net-zero goals are also aided by accurate accounting methods. There is some evidence that programs that require GHG accounting have the effect of lowering emissions.[15]

Greenhouse gas emissions[edit]

2020 Worldwide CO2 emissions (by region, per capita); variwide diagram

Greenhouse gas emissions from human activities strengthen the greenhouse effect, contributing to climate change. Most is carbon dioxide from burning fossil fuels: coal, oil, and natural gas. The largest emitters include coal in China and large oil and gas companies. Human-caused emissions have increased atmospheric carbon dioxide by about 50% over pre-industrial levels. The growing levels of emissions have varied, but have been consistent among all greenhouse gases (GHGs). Emissions in the 2010s averaged 56 billion tons a year, higher than any decade before.[16]

Electricity generation and transport are major emitters; the largest single source, according to the United States Environmental Protection Agency, is transportation, accounting for 27% of all USA greenhouse gas emissions.[17]Deforestation and other changes in land use also emit carbon dioxide and methane. The largest source of anthropogenic methane emissions is agriculture, closely followed by gas venting and fugitive emissions from the fossil-fuel industry. The largest agricultural methane source is livestock. Agricultural soils emit nitrous oxide partly due to fertilizers. Similarly, fluorinated gases from refrigerants play an outsized role in total human emissions.

Calculations[edit]

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/79/Carbon_Footprint_simple-explanation_EN.webm/Carbon_Footprint_simple-explanation_EN.webm.360p.vp9.webm
The carbon footprint explained

A product, service, or company’s carbon footprint can be affected by several factors including, but not limited to:

  • Energy sources
  • Offsite electricity generation
  • Materials

These factors can also change with location or industry.

In most cases, the total carbon footprint cannot be calculated exactly because of inadequate knowledge of data about the complex interactions between contributing processes, including the influence of natural processes that store or release carbon dioxide. For this reason, Wright, Kemp, and Williams proposed the following definition of a carbon footprint:

A measure of the total amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4) emissions of a defined population, system or activity, considering all relevant sources, sinks and storage within the spatial and temporal boundary of the population, system or activity of interest. Calculated as carbon dioxide equivalent using the relevant 100-year global warming potential (GWP100).[18]

The Greenhouse Gas Protocol has extended the range of gases.

The standard covers the accounting and reporting of seven greenhouse gases covered by the Kyoto Protocol – carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PCFs), sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) and nitrogen trifluoride (NF3).[19]

An individual’s, nation’s, or organization’s carbon footprint can be measured by undertaking a GHG emissions assessment,[20] a life cycle assessment, or other calculative activities denoted as carbon accounting. Once the size of a carbon footprint is known, a strategy can be devised to reduce it, for example, by technological developments, energy efficiency improvements, better process and product management, changed Green Public or Private Procurement (GPP), carbon capture, consumption strategies, carbon offsetting and others.[21]

For calculating personal carbon footprints, several free online carbon footprint calculators exist.[22][23]

Calculating the carbon footprint of industry, product, or service is a complex task. One tool industry uses Life-cycle assessment (LCA), where carbon footprint may be one of many factors taken into consideration when assessing a product or service. The International Organization for Standardization has a standard called ISO 14040:2006 that has the framework for conducting an LCA study.[24] ISO 14060 family of standards provides further sophisticated tools for quantifying, monitoring, reporting and validating or verifying of GHG emissions and removals.[25] Another method is through the Greenhouse Gas Protocol,[26] a set of standards for tracking greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) across scope 1, 2 and 3 emissions within the value chain.[27]

Predicting the carbon footprint of a process is also possible through estimations using the above standards. By using Emission intensities/Carbon intensities and the estimated annual use of fuel, chemical, or other inputs, the carbon footprint can be determined while a process is being planned/designed.

Direct carbon emissions[edit]

Direct or ‘scope 1’ carbon emissions come from sources that are directly from the site that is producing a product or delivering a service.[28][29] An example for industry would be the emissions related to burning a fuel on site. On the individual level, emissions from personal vehicles or gas burning stoves would fall under scope 1.

Indirect carbon emissions[edit]

Consumption-based CO₂ emissions per capita, 2017

Indirect carbon emissions are emissions from sources upstream or downstream from the process being studied, also known as scope 2 or scope 3 emissions.[28]

Examples of upstream, indirect carbon emissions may include:[30]

  • Transportation of materials/fuels
  • Any energy used outside of the production facility
  • Wastes produced outside of the production facility

Examples of downstream, indirect carbon emissions may include:[31]

  • Any end-of-life process or treatments
  • Product and waste transportation
  • Emissions associated with selling the product

Scope 2 emissions are the other indirect related to purchased electricity, heat, and/or steam used on site.[29]

Scope 3 emissions are all other indirect emissions derived from the activities of an organization but from sources which they do not own or control.[32] The GHG Protocol’s Corporate Value Chain (Scope 3) Accounting and Reporting Standard allows companies to assess their entire value chain emissions impact and identify where to focus reduction activities.[33]

By country[edit]

According to The World Bank, the global average carbon footprint in 2014 was 4.97 metric tons CO2 per person.[6] The EU average for 2007 was about 13.8 tons CO2e per person, whereas for the U.S., Luxembourg and Australia it was over 25 tons CO2e per person. In 2017, the average for the USA was about 20 metric tons CO2e per person.

The footprints per capita of countries in Africa and India were well below average. To set these numbers into context, assuming a global population around 9–10 billion by 2050 a carbon footprint of about 2–2.5 tons CO2e per capita is needed to stay within a 2 °C target. The carbon footprint calculations are based on a consumption based approach using a Multi-Regional[34]Input-Output database, which accounts for all greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in the global supply chain and allocates them to the final consumer of the purchased commodities. GHG emissions related to land use cover change are not included.[35]

By sector[edit]

Global greenhouse gas emissions can be attributed to different sectors of the economy. This provides a picture of the varying contributions of different types of economic activity to climate change, and helps in understanding the changes required to mitigate climate change.

Manmade greenhouse gas emissions can be divided into those that arise from the combustion of fuels to produce energy, and those generated by other processes. Around two thirds of greenhouse gas emissions arise from the combustion of fuels.[36]

Energy may be produced at the point of consumption, or by a generator for consumption by others. Thus emissions arising from energy production may be categorized according to where they are emitted, or where the resulting energy is consumed. If emissions are attributed at the point of production, then electricity generators contribute about 25% of global greenhouse gas emissions.[37] If these emissions are attributed to the final consumer then 24% of total emissions arise from manufacturing and construction, 17% from transportation, 11% from domestic consumers, and 7% from commercial consumers.[38] Around 4% of emissions arise from the energy consumed by the energy and fuel industry itself.

The remaining third of emissions arise from processes other than energy production. 12% of total emissions arise from agriculture, 7% from land use change and forestry, 6% from industrial processes, and 3% from waste.[36]

By products[edit]

A third of Chinese people interviewed for the European Investment Bank climate survey believe that the carbon footprint should be on every product.

Several organizations offer footprint calculators for public and corporate use, and several organizations have calculated carbon footprints of products.[39]

The Carbon Trust has worked with UK manufacturers on foods, shirts and detergents, introducing a CO2 label in March 2007. The label is intended to comply with a new British Publicly Available Specification (i.e. not a standard), PAS 2050,[40] and is being actively piloted by The Carbon Trust and various industrial partners.[41] As of August 2012 The Carbon Trust state they have measured 27,000 certifiable product carbon footprints.[42]

Food contributes 10-30% of a household’s carbon footprint, mainly attributed to agricultural practices like food production and transportation. Meat products have larger carbon footprints than plant products like vegetables and grains due to inefficient conversion of plant energy to animals, and the release of methane from manure.[43]

The precise carbon footprint of different textiles varies considerably according to a wide range of factors. Accounting for durability and energy required to wash and dry textile products, synthetic fabrics generally have a substantially lower carbon footprint than natural ones.[44]

The carbon footprint of materials (also known as embodied carbon) varies widely. The carbon footprint of many common materials can be found in the Inventory of Carbon & Energy database,[45] the GREET databases and models,[46] and LCA databases via openLCA Nexus.[47] The carbon footprint of any manufactured product should be verified by a third-party.[48]

Critique[edit]

Calculate Your Household’s Carbon Footprint (US EAP)

According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the term “carbon footprint” was first used in a BBC vegetarian food magazine in 1999, though the broader concept of “environmental footprint” had been used since at least 1979.[49] The idea of a personal carbon footprint was popularized by a large advertising campaign of the fossil fuel company BP in 2005, designed by Ogilvy.[10][50] It instructed people to calculate their personal footprints and provided ways for people to “go on a low-carbon diet”.[51][52]

This strategy, also employed by other major fossil fuel companies, is now being criticized for trying to shift the blame for negative consequences of those industries onto individual choices.[10][53] Geoffrey Supran and Naomi Oreskes of Harvard University have argued that concepts such as carbon footprints “hamstring us, and they put blinders on us, to the systemic nature of the climate crisis and the importance of taking collective action to address the problem”.[54][55]

Others see the concept more positively. Hiroko Tabuchi, climate correspondent of The New York Times, argues that it is “still a useful concept, though. It allows us to see that the carbon footprint of a typical American is many times that of a resident of the Global South”, encourages comparisions between individuals, companies, and countries, and reminds people that “individual actions do matter”.[56]

The strategy has had some success, with a rise in consumers concerned about their own personal actions, and creation of multiple carbon footprint calculators.[10]

Global perspective[edit]

Power plant that is emitting the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide.

The latest climate science is published in the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report. The report presents key scientific findings linking the increase in anthropogenic GHGs emissions in current climate change. According to the report, it is only possible to avoid warming of 1.5 °C or 2 °C if massive and immediate cuts in greenhouse gas emissions are made. This is part of climate change mitigation measures.

Climate change mitigation is action to limit climate change by reducing emissions of greenhouse gases or removing those gases from the atmosphere.[57]: 2239  The recent rise in global average temperature is mostly caused by emissions from fossil fuels burning (coal, oil, and natural gas). Mitigation can reduce emissions by transitioning to sustainable energy sources, conserving energy, and increasing efficiency. In addition, CO2 can be removed from the atmosphere by enlarging forests, restoring wetlands and using other natural and technical processes, which are grouped together under the term of carbon sequestration.[58]: 12 [59]

Solar energy and wind power have the highest climate change mitigation potential at lowest cost compared to a range of other options.[60] Variable availability of sunshine and wind is addressed by energy storage and improved electrical grids, including long-distance electricity transmission, demand management and diversification of renewables. As low-carbon power is more widely available, transportation and heating can increasingly rely on these sources.[61]: 1 Energy efficiency is improved using heat pumps and electric vehicles. If industrial processes must create carbon dioxide, carbon capture and storage can reduce net emissions.[62]

[edit]

Sign at demonstration: “Go vegan and cut your climate footprint by 50%”

Individual action on climate change can include personal choices in many areas, such as diet, travel, household energy use, consumption of goods and services, and family size. Individuals can also engage in local and political advocacy around issues of climate change. People who wish to reduce their carbon footprint (particularly those in high income countries with high consumption lifestyles), can take “high-impact” actions, such as avoiding frequent flying and petrol fuelled cars, eating mainly a plant-based diet, having fewer children,[67] using clothes and electrical products for longer,[68] and electrifying homes.[69] Avoiding meat and dairy foods has been called “the single biggest way” an individual can reduce their environmental impact.[70]Excessive consumption is more to blame for climate change than population increase.[71] High consumption lifestyles have a greater environmental impact, with the richest 10% of people emitting about half the total lifestyle emissions.[72][73]

Some commentators have argued that individual actions as consumers and “greening personal lives” are insignificant in comparison to collective action.[74] Others say that individual action leads to collective action, and emphasize that “research on social behavior suggests lifestyle change can build momentum for systemic change.”[75] According to respondents to a 2022 survey, climate change is the second most pressing issue confronting Europeans. Over three-quarters of respondents (72%) believe that their individual actions can make a difference in tackling the climate issue.[76]

[edit]

Reforestation, the restocking of existing forests or woodlands that have previously been depleted, is an example of Carbon Offsetting, the counteracting of carbon dioxide emissions with an equivalent reduction of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.[77] Carbon offsetting can reduce a companies overall carbon footprint by offering a carbon credit.

Supply chain emissions (scope 3) are on average 11.4 times higher than operational emissions,[78] more than double previous estimates, due to suppliers improving their emissions accounting. Therefore, there is an increasing focus on companies reducing their emissions coming from their suppliers as a way to reduce risks and capture opportunities.

A life cycle or supply chain carbon footprint study can provide useful data which will help the business to identify specific and critical areas for improvement. By calculating or predicting a process’ carbon footprint high emissions areas can be identified and steps can be taken to reduce in those areas. Collecting real data from suppliers emissions, setting a strategy focused on hot-spots and incentivizing suppliers are still barriers for companies. Nevertheless, solutions exist and the focus should be on improving year-on-year.[79]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^ a b c d e Wiedmann, T. and Minx, J. (2008). A Definition of ‘Carbon Footprint’. In: C. C. Pertsova, Ecological Economics Research Trends: Chapter 1, pp. 1-11, Nova Science Publishers, Hauppauge NY, USA.
  2. ^ “What is a carbon footprint?”. Archived from the original on 11 May 2009. Retrieved 24 July 2009.
  3. ^ a b IPCC, 2022: Annex I: Glossary [van Diemen, R., J.B.R. Matthews, V. Möller, J.S. Fuglestvedt, V. Masson-Delmotte, C.  Méndez, A. Reisinger, S. Semenov (eds)]. In IPCC, 2022: Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [P.R. Shukla, J. Skea, R. Slade, A. Al Khourdajie, R. van Diemen, D. McCollum, M. Pathak, S. Some, P. Vyas, R. Fradera, M. Belkacemi, A. Hasija, G. Lisboa, S. Luz, J. Malley, (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA. doi: 10.1017/9781009157926.020
  4. ^ “The CO2 list (and original sources cited therein)”. Archived from the original on 13 February 2021. Retrieved 18 March 2011.
  5. ^ Department for Business, Energy & Industrial Strategy (25 June 2020). “UK local authority carbon dioxide emissions estimates 2018” (PDF). GOV.UK. Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 January 2021. Retrieved 13 April 2021.
  6. ^ a b “CO2 emissions (metric tons per capita)”. The World Bank. Archived from the original on 6 March 2019. Retrieved 4 March 2019.
  7. ^ “What is your carbon footprint?”. The Nature Conservancy. Archived from the original on 10 September 2021. Retrieved 16 September 2021.
  8. ^ “What is your carbon footprint?”. The Nature Conservancy. Archived from the original on 10 September 2021. Retrieved 25 September 2021.
  9. ^ Turner, James Morton (February 2014). “Counting Carbon: The Politics of Carbon Footprints and Climate Governance from the Individual to the Global”. Global Environmental Politics. 14 (1): 59–78. doi:10.1162/glep_a_00214. ISSN 1526-3800. S2CID 15886043.
  10. ^ a b c d Kaufman, Mark (13 July 2020). “The devious fossil fuel propaganda we all use”. Mashable. Archived from the original on 17 September 2020. Retrieved 17 September 2020.
  11. ^ Wright, Laurence A; Kemp, Simon; Williams, Ian (2011). “‘Carbon footprinting’: towards a universally accepted definition”. Carbon Management. 2 (1): 61–72. doi:10.4155/cmt.10.39. ISSN 1758-3004.
  12. ^ Fang, K.; Heijungs, R.; De Snoo, G.R. (2014). “Theoretical exploration for the combination of the ecological, energy, carbon, and water footprints: Overview of a footprint family”. Ecological Indicators. 36: 508–518. doi:10.1016/j.ecolind.2013.08.017.
  13. ^ “The Basics of Carbon Markets and Trends: Something to Keep an Eye On | CSANR | Washington State University”. Retrieved 8 March 2023.
  14. ^ “Carbon Accounting”. Corporate Finance Institute. Retrieved 6 January 2023.
  15. ^ Downar, Benedikt; Ernstberger, Jürgen; Reichelstein, Stefan; Schwenen, Sebastian; Zaklan, Aleksandar (1 September 2021). “The impact of carbon disclosure mandates on emissions and financial operating performance”. Review of Accounting Studies. 26 (3): 1137–1175. doi:10.1007/s11142-021-09611-x. ISSN 1573-7136. S2CID 220061770.
  16. ^ “Chapter 2: Emissions trends and drivers” (PDF). Ipcc_Ar6_Wgiii. 2022.
  17. ^ US EPA, OAR (10 September 2015). “Carbon Pollution from Transportation”. www.epa.gov. Retrieved 18 October 2021.
  18. ^ Wright, L.; Kemp, S.; Williams, I. (2011). “‘Carbon footprinting’: towards a universally accepted definition”. Carbon Management. 2 (1): 61–72. doi:10.4155/CMT.10.39. S2CID 154004878.
  19. ^ “Corporate Standard Greenhouse Gas Protocol”. Retrieved 29 July 2022.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  20. ^ “Methodologies for the Assessment of Project GHG Emissions and Emission Variations”. www.eib.org. Retrieved 13 January 2022.
  21. ^ Sundarakani, Balan; Goh, Mark; Souza, Robert de; Shun, Cai (1 January 2008). “Measuring carbon footprints across the supply chain”. University of Wollongong in Dubai – Papers: 555–562. Archived from the original on 20 June 2020. Retrieved 17 April 2020.
  22. ^ “My Carbon Plan – Carbon Footprint Calculator, which provides a calculator using ONS data in the UK”. mycarbonplan.org. Archived from the original on 27 July 2020. Retrieved 4 April 2020.
  23. ^ “CO2List.org which shows CO2 coming from common products and activities”. co2list.org. Archived from the original on 3 October 2019. Retrieved 4 October 2019.
  24. ^ “Environmental management — Life cycle assessment — Principles and framework”. International Organization for Standardization. Archived from the original on 26 February 2019. Retrieved 25 February 2019.
  25. ^ DIN EN ISO 14067:2019-02, Treibhausgase_- Carbon Footprint von Produkten_- Anforderungen an und Leitlinien für Quantifizierung (ISO_14067:2018); Deutsche und Englische Fassung EN_ISO_14067:2018, Beuth Verlag GmbH, doi:10.31030/2851769
  26. ^ “Greenhouse Gas Protocol”. Archived from the original on 22 December 2020. Retrieved 25 February 2019.
  27. ^ “Streamlined Energy And Carbon Reporting Guidance UK”. LongevityIntelligen. Retrieved 16 July 2020.
  28. ^ a b “Product Life Cycle Accounting and Reporting Standard” (PDF). GHG Protocol. Archived (PDF) from the original on 25 February 2019. Retrieved 25 February 2019.
  29. ^ a b Bellassen, Valentin (2015). Accounting for Carbon Monitoring, Reporting and Verifying Emissions in the Climate Economy. Cambridge University Press. p. 6. ISBN 9781316162262.
  30. ^ “Scope 2 Calculation Guidance” (PDF). GHG Protocol. Archived (PDF) from the original on 21 October 2020. Retrieved 25 February 2019.
  31. ^ EPA, OA, US (23 December 2015). “Overview of Greenhouse Gases | US EPA”. US EPA. Archived from the original on 12 August 2016. Retrieved 1 November 2017.
  32. ^ Green Element Ltd., What is the Difference Between Scope 1, 2 and 3 Emissions? Archived 11 November 2020 at the Wayback Machine, published 2 November 2018, accessed 11 November 2020
  33. ^ “Corporate Value Chain (Scope 3) Standard | Greenhouse Gas Protocol”. ghgprotocol.org. Retrieved 9 December 2021.
  34. ^ “Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks”. EPA. 8 February 2017. Archived from the original on 20 October 2021. Retrieved 1 April 2019.
  35. ^ Tukker, Arnold; Bulavskaya, Tanya; Giljum, Stefan; de Koning, Arjan; Lutter, Stephan; Simas, Moana; Stadler, Konstantin; Wood, Richard (2016). “Environmental and resource footprints in a global context: Europe’s structural deficit in resource endowments”. Global Environmental Change. 40: 171–181. doi:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2016.07.002.
  36. ^ a b “Climate Watch”. www.climatewatchdata.org. Retrieved 6 March 2020.
  37. ^ IEA, CO2 Emissions from Fuel Combustion 2018: Highlights (Paris: International Energy Agency, 2018) p.98
  38. ^ IEA, CO2 Emissions from Fuel Combustion 2018: Highlights (Paris: International Energy Agency, 2018) p.101
  39. ^ “CO2 Released when Making & Using Products”. Archived from the original on 13 February 2021. Retrieved 27 October 2009.
  40. ^ “PAS 2050”. bsigroup.com. Archived from the original on 7 September 2008. Retrieved 6 August 2008.
  41. ^ “Certification – Carbon Trust”. carbontrust.co.uk. Archived from the original on 16 May 2008.
  42. ^ “Footprint measurement”. The Carbon Trust. Archived from the original on 23 December 2014. Retrieved 14 August 2012.
  43. ^ “Carbon Footprint Factsheet | Center for Sustainable Systems”. css.umich.edu. Retrieved 22 November 2021.
  44. ^ Berners-Lee, Mike (9 December 2010). How Bad are Bananas? The Carbon Footprint of Everything. London: Profile. pp. 93–94. ISBN 978-1847651822. Archived from the original on 27 July 2020. Retrieved 29 May 2020.
  45. ^ G.P.Hammond and C.I.Jones (2011) Embodied energy and carbon footprint database Archived 1 August 2017 at the Wayback Machine
  46. ^ GREET databases GREET databases and models Archived 13 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine
  47. ^ LCA databases via openLCA Nexus LCA databases via openLCA Nexus Archived 29 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine
  48. ^ Shapiro, Gideon Fink (15 January 2020). “How to Measure Embodied Carbon”. Architect Magazine. Archived from the original on 7 June 2020. Retrieved 16 March 2020.
  49. ^ “carbon, n.” OED Online. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 24 March 2023.
  50. ^ Safire, William (17 February 2008). “Footprint”. The New York Times. Archived from the original on 30 April 2013. Retrieved 30 December 2019.
  51. ^ “BP Global – Environment and society – Carbon reduction”. 12 February 2006. Archived from the original on 12 February 2006. Retrieved 13 June 2021.
  52. ^ Supran, Geoffrey; Oreskes, Naomi (18 November 2021). “The forgotten oil ads that told us climate change was nothing”. The Guardian. Retrieved 24 March 2023.
  53. ^ Westervelt, Amy (14 May 2021). “Big Oil Is Trying to Make Climate Change Your Problem to Solve. Don’t Let Them”. Rolling Stone. Archived from the original on 21 June 2021. Retrieved 13 June 2021.
  54. ^ Leber, Rebecca (13 May 2021). “ExxonMobil wants you to feel responsible for climate change so it doesn’t have to”. Vox. Retrieved 25 March 2023.
  55. ^ Supran, Geoffrey; Oreskes, Naomi (May 2021). “Rhetoric and frame analysis of ExxonMobil’s climate change communications”. One Earth. 4 (5): 696–719. doi:10.1016/j.oneear.2021.04.014. ISSN 2590-3322.
  56. ^ “Searching for Hidden Meaning in Climate Jargon”. The New York Times. 4 November 2022. Retrieved 25 March 2023.
  57. ^ IPCC, 2021: Annex VII: Glossary [Matthews, J.B.R., V. Möller, R. van Diemen, J.S. Fuglestvedt, V. Masson-Delmotte, C.  Méndez, S. Semenov, A. Reisinger (eds.)]. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 2215–2256, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.022.
  58. ^ IPCC (2022) Technical Summary. In Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA
  59. ^ “Sector by sector: where do global greenhouse gas emissions come from?”. Our World in Data. Retrieved 16 November 2022.
  60. ^ IPCC (2022) Summary for policy makers in Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA
  61. ^ Ram M., Bogdanov D., Aghahosseini A., Gulagi A., Oyewo A.S., Child M., Caldera U., Sadovskaia K., Farfan J., Barbosa LSNS., Fasihi M., Khalili S., Dalheimer B., Gruber G., Traber T., De Caluwe F., Fell H.-J., Breyer C. Global Energy System based on 100% Renewable Energy – Power, Heat, Transport and Desalination Sectors. Study by Lappeenranta University of Technology and Energy Watch Group, Lappeenranta, Berlin, March 2019.
  62. ^ “Cement – Analysis”. IEA. Retrieved 24 November 2022.
  63. ^ Wynes, Seth; Nicholas, Kimberly A (12 July 2017). “The climate mitigation gap: education and government recommendations miss the most effective individual actions”. Environmental Research Letters. 12 (7): 074024. Bibcode:2017ERL….12g4024W. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/aa7541. We recommend four widely applicable high-impact (i.e. low emissions) actions with the potential to contribute to systemic change and substantially reduce annual personal emissions: having one fewer child (an average for developed countries of 58.6 tonnes CO2-equivalent (tCO2e) emission reductions per year), living car-free (2.4 tCO2e saved per year), avoiding airplane travel (1.6 tCO2e saved per roundtrip transatlantic flight) and eating a plant-based diet (0.8 tCO2e saved per year). These actions have much greater potential to reduce emissions than commonly promoted strategies like comprehensive recycling (four times less effective than a plant-based diet) or changing household lightbulbs (eight times less).
  64. ^ Perkins, Sid (11 July 2017). “The best way to reduce your carbon footprint is one the government isn’t telling you about”. Science. Archived from the original on 1 December 2017. Retrieved 29 March 2019.
  65. ^ Ripple, William J.; et al. (13 November 2017), “World Scientists’ Warning to Humanity: A Second Notice” (PDF), BioScience, 67 (12): 1026–1028, doi:10.1093/biosci/bix125, archived (PDF) from the original on 15 December 2019, retrieved 29 March 2019, It is also time to re-examine and change our individual behaviors, including limiting our own reproduction (ideally to replacement level at most) and drastically diminishing our per capita consumption of fossil fuels, meat, and other resources.
  66. ^ Crist, Eileen; Ripple, William J.; Ehrlich, Paul R.; Rees, William E.; Wolf, Christopher (2022). “Scientists’ warning on population” (PDF). Science of the Total Environment. 845: 157166. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.157166. PMID 35803428. S2CID 250387801. Our first action call is a direct, global appeal to all women and men to choose none or at most one child. Individuals, especially if they aspire to large families, may pursue adoption, which is a desirable and compassionate choice for children who are here and need to be cared for.
  67. ^ [63][64][65][66]
  68. ^ “Six key lifestyle changes can help avert the climate crisis, study finds”. the Guardian. 7 March 2022. Retrieved 7 March 2022.
  69. ^ Adcock, Bronwyn (2022). “Electric Monaros and hotted-up skateboards : the ‘genius’ who wants to electrify our world”. the Guardian. Retrieved 6 February 2022.
  70. ^ Carrington, Damian (31 May 2018). “Avoiding meat and dairy is ‘single biggest way’ to reduce your impact on Earth”. The Guardian. Retrieved 24 March 2023.
  71. ^ “COP26: How can an average family afford an electric car? And more questions”. BBC News. 11 November 2021. Retrieved 12 November 2021.
  72. ^ “Emissions inequality—a gulf between global rich and poor – Nicholas Beuret”. Social Europe. 10 April 2019. Archived from the original on 26 October 2019. Retrieved 26 October 2019.
  73. ^ Westlake, Steve. “Climate change: yes, your individual action does make a difference”. The Conversation. Archived from the original on 18 December 2019. Retrieved 9 December 2019.
  74. ^ Lukacs, Martin (17 July 2017). “Neoliberalism has conned us into fighting climate change as individuals”. The Guardian. Archived from the original on 6 November 2019. Retrieved 13 July 2019.
  75. ^ Sparkman, Leor Hackel, Gregg (26 October 2018). “Actually, Your Personal Choices Do Make a Difference in Climate Change”. Slate Magazine. Archived from the original on 6 November 2019. Retrieved 23 July 2019.
  76. ^ “2022-2023 EIB Climate Survey, part 2 of 2: Majority of young Europeans say the climate impact of prospective employers is an important factor when job hunting”. EIB.org. Retrieved 22 March 2023.
  77. ^ Corbett, James (2008). “Carbon Footprint”. In Brenda Wilmoth Lerner; K. Lee Lerner (eds.). Climate Change: In Context, vol. 1. Gale. pp. 162–164. ISBN 978-1-4144-3708-8.
  78. ^ “Transparency to Transformation: A Chain Reaction”. www.cdp.net. Retrieved 9 December 2021.
  79. ^ “How to create the carbon footprint of your supply chain”. Carlos Sanchez. 27 May 2020. Retrieved 9 December 2021.

External links[edit]