Old Egypt – Wikipedia

Old Egypt is the general name for the country of Egypt in antiquity. The Egyptian name was KEMET and means “black country”. KEMET If the Delta of the Nile denotes and goes back to the black mud, which after the annual Nilschwood as an meadow sediment increased the soil fertility, so that good harvests were always possible. Another name for the country of antiquity was Ta Meri (T3 MRJ), which is translated as “beloved country”. ^[first]

Story

The Egyptian history, insofar as it can be grasped by material certificates for historiography, includes the periods from the early days to the conquest by the Roman Empire. It is divided into several eras.

The emergence of Egyptian culture lies in distant prehistoric times. The culture known as a high culture began in the early dynastic period when a first empire was created in Oberägypt. Military expansions towards Nildelta enlarged this empire. Today’s Lower Egypt was conquered there – the first step of the imperial cleaning took place.

Politics and administration

Kingdom

The country was ruled centrally by the Egyptian king (Pharaoh), who was considered the son of the sun god. The people revered him as a representative of the divine on earth and thus owner of a divine office. As a ruler, he had unrestricted power powers. He was the only owner of land with all the products on it, and he had land treasures, as well as the prey from war features. ^[2]

As a rule, the king exerted his rule from the ascent of the throne to the end of life. The oldest succeeded his successor with the main grind. The king and royal family were housed in their own palace, which was used both publicly and privately and was mostly in the country’s capital.

The Egyptian king had to ensure the absolute well -being of the country and the maintenance of the world order (Maat). He issued all laws and decrees, monitored economy and trade, had the command of the command through the army and determined the construction program, in particular the construction of temples. In addition, he had the necessary reforms carried out, appointed chief minister who supported him in the exercise of his government office and awarded the gold to his subordinates for special achievements. In addition, he ensured the maintenance of the temple cults throughout the country, which was carried out by deputy priests. The preparation for his eternal life was great care. The creation of the Königsgrab was usually started during his government.

In the 30th year of the government, and then every further third year, the Sedfest was celebrated, which served to ritual renewal of the royalty. Other rituals and festivals were the hunt for large game and lions as well as the association festival, in which the king was celebrated as the successor to the supposedly first king and imperial cleaner Menes.

The typical insignia of the ruler included the double crown, the original queue and the ceremonial beard.

Administration

The main tasks of the Egyptian administration consisted of counting and setting up taxes in the form of natural ones (cattle, grain), the new measurement of the fields according to the retiring Nile flood, the organization of royal construction projects and expeditions, as well as in the purchase and remuneration of workers. The most important branches were the treasure house, the double barn (office for the administration of grain stores), the military administration, the temple administration, the king’s palace administration and the construction supervision.

The administrative system was tautly organized and well -divided hierarchically. The head was the venir, who was directly subordinate to the king. This was followed by other important offices such as treasurer, construction manager, Siegler of the King (Chetemti-Biti), heritage prince and mayor. There were a total of up to 2000 ^[3] Different civil servants that were ordered differently after ranking. The height of the rank was strongly from the proximity to the king, in the personal environment of which many civil servants such as palace administrators, secretaries and file writers were employed. Officials with high rank were very viewed and had a view of their own grave facility. High offices were initially only filled with members of the royal family. Only in the Middle Kingdom did a separation take place. Many offices were inherited to the son by the father, but as a result of the social background were also possible.

The country was administratively divided into 42 Gaue, of which 22 were in Upper and 20 in Lower Egypt. Each Gau was under a fiery brush that ruled from the respective provincial capital. All northern administrative districts were held centrally by Memphis, and all southern from Thebes. The border between the two halves was just north of Assiut. ^[4]

The conquered part of Nubiens was subordinate to a Viceroy of Kusch from the 17th to 21st dynasty. This was directly subordinate to the king and was authorized to represent it in the subordinate southern countries. The Egyptian administration in the Near East came from local city princes in Syria and Palestine.

Right

The king and the vesir were at the top of the legal system. The king was considered to be real of the divine order (Maat) and himself issued laws and decrees. On his behalf, the vesir, who, as the top judge, had supervision over all courts and was the last possible instance in disputes. There was no jurisdiction in the narrower sense, law was practically applied and individual cases were decided individually. The king was also able to make decisions at any time regardless of the existing laws as long as he retained the balance of the Maat. The main concerns were presented in the old empire in front of the so -called “six tribunals”, in which high officials were used as judges. In the new empire, important cases were negotiated in the Great Kenbet, which were under the direction of the venir. For minor disputes and offenses, there were local dishes in the cities, temples and villages that were composed of local civil servants. ^[5]

The principle of the legal profession was not yet known. The plaintiffs and accused had to represent themselves in the process and swear an oath before their statement. Judgments were based on indications and testimonies. In cases with crimes in the center of the center, the defendants were first interviewed and confessions were partially forced with torture. Frequent punishment was blows, mutilation, confiscation of assets as well as deportation and forced labor. One of the toughest punishments was the cutting of the nose and ears. The death penalty was only imposed in exceptional cases and mostly carried out by burning, beheading or posting. ^[6] From the new empire, defendants had the opportunity to contact oracle at religious festivals. To this end, a statue of the king, which was worn by priests, was asked an oral or written question that could be denied or affirmed by a corresponding movement. ^[7]

Military system

Since the country was relatively well protected from an attack by external enemies due to the favorable geographical location, the military tasks in the old empire were limited primarily to the implementation of construction projects as well as quarry and trade expeditions. Normal workers were recruited for military projects who returned to their old activity after termination. Professional soldiers and a fixed organizational structure of the army only became important in the middle and new kingdom to lead larger campaigns in the Near East and to secure border fortresses in Nubia. ^[8]

The most important armed forces were the infantry, the Nile fleet and since the 18th dynasty the charging troop. The infantry was largely made up of lancers and nubian archers. The smallest military unit was the “department”, which consisted of 50 men. Four to five departments formed a regiment and up to 20 regiments a division that subordinate to a certain deity. The highest military rank of the chief troop leader was mostly worn by the crown prince in the new empire. Despite the high reward that precious metal, lands or slaves provided, the reputation of fighting soldiers or officers was only low for the Egyptians. ^[8] Libyers and Nubians were usually used for combat tasks, while Egyptians were more likely to be found in the higher officers. The military training included troop marches and duels. ^[9]

Trade

Commercial contacts for neighboring peoples have existed since the earliest time, even before the Egyptian Reich cleaning around 3000 BC. The neighboring countries were traveled by the Egyptian dealers on both the sea and on the land path. Foreign trade reached its peak in the New Reich. ^[ten]

Company

The population was 2900 BC. BC estimated two million and was never higher than eight million. ^[11]

Overview

Most old Egyptians were farmers and lived a fairly simple life. They had small fields along the Nile and built wheat, fruits and vegetables for about eight to nine months a year. Since they had to take care of themselves, they breeded goats, sheep and cattle and created supplies for the period of annual floods.

The position of women is controversial and often considered outstanding compared to classic antiquity (antique Greece). In fact, the woman seems to have been legally equal to the man, but there are only a few evidence of women in positions in administration. The sources cannot be found in the sources whether the access was difficult or if they were bound to the house due to the desired children’s kingdom. What is certain is that women in administrative offices form a minority, but there are also some prominent examples of high positions. In contrast, women are often attested to the miller’s professions. Egyptian texts repeatedly emphasize the care towards widows. This could be seen as an indication that widowed women had only a few opportunities to acquire their own.

The spouses usually lived monogamous. So far, polygamy has only been attested to the royal family and a few high officials. It can be assumed to be high child mortality. For this reason, children’s wealth was welcome. The average life expectancy was not very high, it was only about 32 to 35 years. ^[twelfth]

The Egyptians were always of the opinion that they had good gods on their side. You were on your hat off to fraudsters and haunters. Spuk spirits were unhappy souls whose graves had been devastated or destroyed. It is said that a pharaoh once again had a grave prepared after such a spirit told him about his suffering in the dream so that the spirit could return to the realm of the dead.

Pre- and early dynastic period

Around 6000 BC BC began to operate cattle breeding in the previously weakened Egypt. By this and through the approx. 5000 BC. Chr. The population grew. But the agriculture arose new problems: Since the Nile flooded the country once a year and otherwise drought, a balance had to be created in the form of sewer systems that derived or stored the water. Since the individual farmers were not able to do this, they merged and formed so -called Gaue, which were managed by Gaufürsten. Therefore, the ancient Egyptian word for Gaufürst means “the one that builds the channels”. Cereal silos were built in order to be able to supply people all year round. These were also managed by the princes. However, the individual flaps started to fight. Around 3000 BC Chr. Menes prevailed and united Upper and Lower Egypt who had previously formed. Menes was the first ruler of Egypt entitled Pharaoh, which means “big house”. Because the Pharaoh got a large part of the harvest, it accumulated wealth and culture was created by promoting architecture, sculpture, etc. The trigger for many cultural developments was the belief in life after death and the developing death cult, which was so strongly trained in Egyptians that people dealt with the design of their grave all their lives.

Old and medium kingdom

Egypt was an absolute monarchy in the Old and Middle Kingdom. The pharaoh issued all laws and was considered a higher spirit and later as an intermediary between man and the divine. He was z. B. also held responsible for the (un) fertility of the country. The writers and administrators became from the former Gaufürsten, i.e. H. The officials at that time. Although they still managed the Gaue, they were subordinate to the pharaoh. The simple craftsmen and farmers were among them in the then strict hierarchical culture. This clear separation of the stands made it necessary to design people on reliefs and pictures and not only indicate it by the hieroglyyphe for “human”.

The farmers only had to make their grain available to the general public, other products such as meat or vegetables were allowed to keep them themselves. At the time of flooding and the greatest drought, when no agriculture was possible, the farmers had to work in the military or pyramid construction.

Many thousands of people were involved in the construction of the pyramids: a master builder who monitored the building, some engineers, thousands of foremen, many writers (civil servants) who z. B. regulated the material procurement. All employees also had to be supplied with food and drinks on site. Since the construction lasted a very long time, the master builder sometimes died before the pyramid was completed and had to be replaced. If the pharaoh died before completion, the construction was continued.

Practice of religion

In the realm of the Egyptians, every god had their own temple, in which statues of the respective gods stood. Sometimes there are special areas for the veneration of a god in Totent temples (house of millions or millionth anniversary). Because the Pharaoh was seen as a high spirit in the past and later as an intermediary between the people and the spiritual world, there was even a statue for him that was subjected to certain rites for the benefit of the country. Every morning shortly before sunrise, a priest crossed the temple with a candle and went to the shrine in which the statue was lay and knocked. The God awakened and took on earthly figure. Then the priest washed the statue and rubbed her forehead with her right little finger with cedar and myrrhe oil. The statue was attracted and food and drinks were given to her. Flowers were also presented to her, because it was believed that the god himself was in the fragrance. The offerings were shown to the gods so that the world remained in harmony. In addition to food, drinks and flowers, the offerings also included wine, perfume and incense. The incense should drive away the evil spirits and was specially made by the priests in secret rooms, in which a list of ingredients was attached to the walls. In processions, the statue was taken out of the temple and carried through the streets. But even then the people couldn’t see them because they were covered.

The temple was the center of the city. The priests were often responsible for the city administration, trained the children, provided medical help and led a library. The pharaoh was the top representative of the temple. The people could only offer their victims in front of the temple because it was not allowed to enter him. Young priests were trained in the temple. Later they lived together near the temple on a lake that was artificially created. They had to bathe in it twice a day and twice a night to stay in. For this reason, they also had to shave their body every other day. On the roof of the temple there was often an observatory from which the stars were observed. The stars directly around the Polarstern were called “the imperishable” because they could be seen all year round. The planets made references to the gods, which – according to the pictorial idea – drove across the sky with boats.

Science

mathematics

Only real breaks with an integer denominator and meters were known. Since there were only hieroglyphs for parent breaks except for 2/3, all breaks had to be represented as sums of parent broken.

Astronomy

The Egyptians dealt with astronomy and calculated the flood of the Nile based on the stand of the Sothis (Sirius).

medicine

Medicine, magic and religion were inseparable from each other in ancient Egypt. Medicines or surgical interventions included healing diseases, but amulets were always important to protect and summon the magicians who were supposed to keep evil spirits. The medical knowledge of the ancient Egyptians is only known in fragments by the paleopathological studies of Mummy. In this way, there was information that fractures were directed, amputations were carried out professionally, artificial teeth or bits were used. In some cases, treatments on the skull could even be detected. Despite their skills in mummification of corpses, however, they had no specific anatomical or physiological knowledge of the construction and functionality of the human organs. So z. B. the heart considered the seat of the mind and, for example, they could not do anything in the event of swelling, internal injuries or severe traumatic head injuries.

Art

Egyptian art essentially consists of the three areas of architecture, painting and plastic. Most of the works of art were created for the dead. The Egyptians worked with stone, metal, wood and glass.

In the 19th century, Egyptian art was “rediscovered” by scientists under Napoléon and came into the attention of researchers, collectors and museums. Until the 21st century, there were more or less systematic excavations that revealed various treasures or sculptures and brought new knowledge about the people of ancient Egypt.

architecture

In the early days, the buildings first consisted of clay bricks, later (in the 3rd dynasty) made of stone. These buildings were built for cult-religious purposes, e.g. B. the 60 m high level pyramid of the King Djoser.

The pyramids date from the 4th dynasty. The most famous example is the Cheops pyramid with almost 147 m height. It symbolized the connection between the eternal (tip) and earthly (base). The most famous pyramid builders were Cheops, Mykerinos and Chephren.

Total temples were created in the 5th dynasty, which are also called pyramid or veneration stamps. They always belonged to a royal grave and formed a complex. In the Middle Kingdom, the Temple of Tops was also built as a sole temple complex. In the New Reich, these were mostly built on the plain in front of the Felsen Mountains in the valley of the kings. This includes the Totent temples of Ramses III. and Amenophis III. Or the death temple of the Hatshepsut temple of the Hatshepsut. The pharaohs buried in the facility were offered in a death temple.

The procession or cult temple was significantly surrounded by the courtyard and the “Blessed Healing” (Sanktuar). The pharaoh took part in the founding ceremony. Next to the complex is sometimes a sacred lake and a “house of life”, in which artists and doctors were trained.

Furthermore, valley temples are to be mentioned that were on the banks of the Nile and were connected to the drain temple by the waving. The pyramid followed behind the dead temple.

Other buildings:

• Mastaba: A building that was a kind of “private grave” up to the Middle Empire, disguised with workstone, prism -shaped, with cult room, on the west side a shot door.
• Grave facilities consisted of the tale temple, the tread, the Tota Temple and the Pyramid. The graves of the high officials were in the area of ​​the facility. The arrangement of the graves towards the pyramid center hung from the importance of the person.

painting

In the history of Egypt, rock pictures and ceramic paintings emerged. However, the typical characteristics of Egyptian painting are essentially known from finds in grave chapels of the pharaoh families and high civil servants. The murals in the graves should remind the soul of the dead of their lives on earth and represent their reality without referring to the individual, and the dead with the “surrounded” what they had in their lifetime. The second major subject area of ​​Egyptian painting showed representations of the world of gods and the death court. Some newer works are still preserved on papyrus.

The image design followed precise guidelines. The figures were distributed over the entire designed area, and weird views were avoided. The head and legs were shown in the profile, but the upper body and arms were mostly head -on. Shadow or lighting effects were not incorporated, and a background was also avoided. Main figures were shown larger than minor figures (meaning perspective). There were no perspective representations; For example, birds do not sit in, but on the reed pages. The arrangement of people was mostly rigid and active movement was avoided. So people can usually be seen immediately before they start moving, but rarely with a half -raised foot. Such portraits usually date into the final phases of large epochs, e.g. B. the end of the old kingdom, whereby it was sometimes also used as a stylistic device and used excessively (acrobat scene in the grave). No loosening, but a greater exception to these rules form the murals from Akhenaten’s reign, whose “revolutionary” rule is mostly only seen in political and religious, but not in the artistic aspect.

Reliefs and wall paintings were used in temples, palaces, graves and burial buildings. If a wall was to be decorated with reliefs, a mains grid for the proportions was first applied, then the outline and then the fine lines were first worked out. A distinction is made between flat reliefs (background is removed) and sunk reliefs (lines are carved in). Finally, they were colored with pigments. Use soot or coal for black, for green and blue malachite or azurit, for white plaster or chalk, for red, yellow, pink and brown iron oxide pigments.

Plastic

Most sculptures were set up in grave systems. You should represent the dead and secure it forever. That is why the sculptors tried to represent humans without pointing out transience; So they tried to map the essence more than the appearance. That is why the figures with an ideal posture are shown, and individual body shapes are largely targeted.

The keeping of the statues is always upright, either sitting, kneeling or standing. Spaces were avoided. In wooden statues, the arms and legs were individually made and set. Limestone or granite was mostly used for stone statues. Another feature of the Egyptian sculptures is that they were always painted, even if they were made of valuable materials. Women were painted light yellow, men red -brown. Sometimes crystals or other colored stones were used as the eyes of the figures, as with the famous seated writer in the Louvre in Paris.

The sculptures of the Amarna era in the 18th dynasty are an exception to the idealizing representation of Egyptian sculptures. The duration of this period, named after the place Tell-El-Amarna, on which the remains of Pharaoh Aklaton’s newly founded capital Achet- Aton is located with its reign (from 1350 BC. Amenophis IV., From approx. 1346 BC Akhenaten, † 1334 BC) and, moreover, for about 20 years.

Akhenaten introduced the monotheism in Egypt and redesigned the entire state. He replaced the old gods with the god Aton (the sun disk), had the mighty amun priests disempowered, expropriated the lands of the temple, and finally moved and his court to build his new capital in the middle of the desert between Memphis and Thebes. All of this happened between his third and fifth year. As a visible sign of the new time, he made his birth name Amenophis and from then on called Akhenaten.

Akhenaten promoted Egyptian art over all dimensions and it was created among sculptors such as Thutmosis a completely new art style that not only broke with the Egyptian rules such as lack of prospects and immobility. Even today, the style seems strange to us and it must have had a similar effect for the Egyptians at the time of the new empire. It was characterized by excessive, extended proportions and champollioned the sculptures described the sculptures as ugly and grotesque: long -term, obese, the pharaonic statues hermaphrodis to completely sexless. It was often assumed that this type of representation was based on an innate ugliness of the Gottkönig, which is why various clinical pictures were adopted. Bob Brier identifies this appearance with Marfan syndrome, not least because of the inclination of contemporary affected people, not to hide, but to clearly show their “deficiency”. To date, however, we have no idea of ​​how the king and his family actually looked.

After Okenaten’s death in 1334 BC The art style continued to live under his successors Semenchkare and Tutankaton, the later Tutankhamun.

However, he did not survive the time of restoring the old form of government among the Pharaohs Eje and Haremhab and the destruction of Achet-Acts as well as almost all the temples and visual representations of the Amarna epoch.

architecture

Residential buildings

Since archaeological excavations have often concentrated on the much better preserved grave facilities, until a few years ago it was known comparatively little of the residential buildings of the living. This situation has only changed in the past two decades, and there are currently numerous settlement excavations in Elephantine, Buto, Ayn Asil, Tell El-Dab’a and Abydos. Most of the prehistoric times seem to have been simple round straw huts. It was only at the end of the Naqada period that the brick construction for residential buildings seemed to have found widespread use. The residential buildings of the old empire on Elephantine are small and tightly built. Parts of a pyramid city that were found in Gizeh also show more spacious buildings, whereby the settlement found there was obviously planned. Two types of house can be distinguished in the Middle Kingdom. The so -called court house is grouped around an open courtyard. It is typical of the rather poor and medium layers, whereby the rooms were mostly multifunctional, i. that is, there was no room that could be referred to as a bedroom or living room. Most rooms lived, slept and worked. The so -called three -stripe house is more typical for an upscale social class, whereby this house is divided into three areas: (1) A reception area, (2) a main hall that probably served as an audience hall and acted as a kind of living room and (3) A private area in which the landlord even had his own bedroom. The richest of these houses have also been equipped with simple wall paintings, whereby a garden and storage facilities can also occur. The three -stripe house is known in the new realm of the main type of a house and particularly well known from Amarna, where gardens and memory were found around the largest houses. Door frames are often made of stone and labeled. Some rich houses are even provided with figurative wall paintings. There was often a shrine in the main hall.

The development of the houses in the late time is more difficult to follow, but in cities there seems to have been the development of tower -like multi -storey house facilities, as they are typical of the Roman and Byzantine times.

Gardens

Garden art was religiously shaped and played an important role early on. Due to excavations, temple inscriptions and murals, this garden culture and the creation of user and ornamental gardens have been at least the 3rd millennium BC. BC comparatively well documented. Even if the pyramids and temple systems surrounded by desert no longer give the impression, they were once surrounded by large gardens. In addition, the pharaohs and the privileged Egyptian social class had elaborately designed pleasure gardens.

Historic sites

Cities

Temple

Burial sites

See also

literature

overview

• Jan Assmann: Egypt. A story of meaning. Fischer Paperback, Frankfurt am Main 1999, ISBN 3-596-14267-9.
• Alessandro Bongio: Egypt – the land of the pharaohs. New Kaiser, Klagenfurt 2005, ISBN 3-7043-5045-1.
• Charlotte Booth: Travel guides in the world of antiquity. The old Egypt, Thebes and the Niltal 1200 BC. Chr. Thesse, Stuttage 2009, issbrs 978-380062-228810.
• Isabelle Brega: Egypt. Müller, Stuttgart/ Zurich 1997, ISBN 3-86070-836-8.
• Vivian Davies, Renée Friedman: Unknown Egypt. On the trail of old secrets with new methods. Theses, Stutgart 1999, ISBN 3-8062-1393-3.
• Hans Gerhard Evers: State from the stone – monuments, history and meaning of the Egyptian plastic during the middle empire. 2 volumes, Bruckmann, Munich 1929 ( Online up: Archiv.evers.frydrych.org ).
• Wolfgang Helck: Small lexicon of Egyptology. Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 1999, ISBN 3-447-04027-0
• Sabine Kubisch: The old Egypt. Of 4000 BC Chr. To 30 % Chr. Marix, Wiesbaden 2017, ISBN 978-3-7374-1048-9
• Christoph Kucklick: The realm of the pharaohs. Gruner & Jahr, Hamburg 2000, ISBN 3-570-19239-3.
• Karl Opel: The old wonderland of the pyramids. 5th edition. Spamer, Leipzig 1906 ( online ).
• Guy Rachet: Lexicon of ancient Egypt. Patmos, Düsseldorf/ Zurich 2002, ISBN 3-491-69049-8.
• Hermann A. Schlögl: The old Egypt: history and culture from early to Cleopatra. Beck, Munich 2006, ISBN 3-406-54988-8.
• Siegfried Schott: Ancient Egyptian festival (= Treatises of the Academy of Sciences and Literature. Humanities and social science class. Born in 1950, Volume 10). Publisher of Sciences and Literature in Mainz (in Commission with Franz Steiner Verlag, Wiesbaden).
• Wolfgang Schuler: Pocket lexicon old Egypt. Piper, Munich/ Zurich 2000, ISBN 3-492-23105-5.
• Regine Schulz, Matthias Seidel: The old Egypt. Mysterious high culture on the Nile (= Fascination from A to Z. ). Meyers Lexicon Device, Manhethim 1999, ISBN 3-411-08321-2.
• David P. Silverman: The old Egypt. Frederking & Thaler, Munich 1997, ISBN 3-89405-371-2.
• Bolko stern: Egyptian cultural history. Reprint Verlag, unchanged reprint of Edition Magdeburg 1896, Leipzig 2000, ISBN 3-8262-1908-2.
• Toby Wilkinson: Rise and fall of the ancient Egypt. 3. Edition. Pantheon, Munich 2015.

Everyday life

• Manfred Reitz: Everyday life in ancient Egypt. Battenberg, Augsburg 1999, ISBN 3-89441-464-2.
• Edda Bresciani: On the banks of the Nile, everyday life at the time of the pharaohs. Theses, Stuttgart 2002, ISBN 3-8062-1655-X.
• Francois Trassard, Dominique Anterion, Renaud Thomazo: Life in ancient Egypt. TheSiss, Stutgart 2005, ISBN 3-8062-1947-8.
• Martin von Falck, Katja Lembke, Britta Rabe: Life on the Nile and everyday life in ancient Egypt (= The old Egypt in Hildesheim. Volume 2). 1st edition, from Zabern, Mainz 2011, ISBN 978-3-8053-4285-8.

Stands

• Anja B. Kootz: The ancient Egyptian state. Investigation from a political science perspective (= Menes. Studies on the culture and language of Egyptian early days and the old empire. Band 4). Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 2006, ISBN 3-447-05319-4

Weblinks

Museums

Archaeological locations

• Kent Weeks u. a.: Theban Mapping Project. ( Memento from January 5, 2010 in Internet Archive ). Full overview of the valley of the kings; Numerous texts, pictures and literature lists.
• Museum of Fine Arts, Boston: The Giza Archives. ( Memento from January 14, 2013 in Internet Archive ). Very extensive homepage: photos, documentaries and bibliography with online literature on Gizeh, interactive satellite images and panoramic recordings, information on excavations.
• Barry Kemp u. a.: Amarna Project. Overview of the excavations in Amarna.

Archaeological institutes

Egyptologists and study projects

Databases

Individually

1. ↑ Rainer Hannig: The language of the pharaohs. Part 1: Large manual dictionary Egyptian-German. von Zabern, Mainz 1995, ISBN 3-8053-1771-9, pp. 223.1–224.9.
2. ↑ Thomas Schneider: Lexicon of the pharaohs. Albatros, Düsseldorf 2002, ISBN 3-491-96053-3, p. 28.
3. ↑ Erik Hornung: Introduction to Egyptology. Stand, methods, tasks. 6., unchanged edition. Scientific Book Society, Darmstadt 2008, ISBN 978-3-534-21647-5, p. 78.
4. ↑ E. Hornung: Introduction to Egyptology. Darmstadt 2008, S. 81.
5. ↑ W. Helck: Small lexicon of Egyptology. Wiesbaden 1999, S. 97–98, → Jurisdiction.
6. ↑ E. Hornung: Introduction to Egyptology. Darmstadt 2008, S. 85–87.
7. ↑ W. Helck: Small lexicon of Egyptology. Wiesbaden 1999, S. 212–213, → Oracle.
8. ↑ ^{a b} E. Hornung: Introduction to Egyptology. Darmstadt 2008, S. 83–85.
9. ↑ A. Bonnogio: Egypt – the land of the pharaohs. Klagenfurt 2005, pp. 144–145.
10. ↑ Gabriele Höber-Kamel: From Uruk to Hatti – Egypt and his relationships in the old Orient. In: Egypt and Near East (= KEMET. Lift 1/2000). Kemet-Publishe, Berlin 2000, ISSN  0943-5972 , S. 4.
11. ↑ Hermann A. Schlögl: The old Egypt: history and culture from early to Cleopatra. Frankfurt am Main 2006, S. 18.
12. ↑ Hermann A. Schlögl: The old Egypt: history and culture from early to Cleopatra. Frankfurt am Main 2006, S. 20.